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Warning: This page is an edit and testing page use by the wiki authors. It is not a content page for the Manual. Information on this page may not be accurate and should not be used as guidance in managing stormwater.

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This page provides information on water treatment residuals. While providing extensive information on water treatment residuals, there is a section focused specifically on stormwater applications for water treatment residuals.

1 Overview and description
2 Applications for coir in stormwater management
3 Properties of coir
- 3.1 Chemical-physical properties of coir
- 3.2 Potential contaminants in coir
4 Effects of coir on physical and chemical properties of soil and bioretention media
5 Standards, classification, testing, and distributors
6 Effects of aging
7 Storage, handling, and field application
8 Sustainability
9 References

Overview and description

Water treatment residuals are the by-products of water treatment for drinking water. Drinking water treatment residuals are primarily sediment, metal (aluminum, iron or calcium) oxide/hydroxides, activated carbon, and lime removed from raw water during the water purification process (Agyin-Birikorang et al., 2009). Aluminum sulphate (commonly known as alum), ferric chloride and lime are added as flocculants in the water treatment process.

Coconut (Cocus nucifera L.) pith or coir, the mesocarp of the fruit, is a waste product that has potential benefits in growth media, including engineered media used in stormwater applications. Coir dust is peat-like and consists of short fibres (< 2 cm). Coir has a large surface area per unit volume, is hydrophilic, and therefore has the ability to absorb water. It's primary components are lignin and cellulose, each making up about 45% of coir's dry weight. Water soluble fractions typically account for about 5% of coir, by weight (Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2016; Alam, accessed from https://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2014/01/properties-of-coconutcoir-fiber.html on 2/13/20).

There are three basic types of coir material.

Coco pith is a rich, brown color and has a high water retention capacity.
Coco fibers are stringy bundles that does not readily retain water and will break down over time.
Coco chips are small chunks of coir that combine the properties of the peat and fiber. Coco chips retain water well and also allow for air pockets.

Coir production involves separating the husk from the shelled nut and soaking the husk in water. The fibers are then separated from the pith and the resulting material is screened to create a uniform particle size. A dust is created during this process and the dust may be air dried and packaged. Prematurely harvested (green) fruits are often soaked in a saline solution to facilitate the separation process, which in turn affects the chemical properties of the resulting coir dust.

Coir benefits may include but are not limited to the following.

Coir has a neutral pH
Coir improves water holding capacity of soil
Coir may improve drainage in fine textured soil by creating pore spaces as it degrades
Coir increases the organic matter content of soil, which can improve soil structure and aggregation
Coir production is sustainable and therefore does not contribute to greenhouse gas emissions
Coir is a suitable substitute for peat, the mining of which is not sustainable

Applications for coir in stormwater management

Coir has potential applications for stormwater management. Below is a brief summary.

Coir increases water holding capacity of soil
Coir may reduce the bulk density and improve saturated hydraulic conductivity in compacted soil
Coir is likely to have limited effects on phosphorus retention unless specifically amended to retain phosphorus
Coir mats and logs are used for erosion protection
When properly composted or incorporated into engineered media with a source of nutrients (e.g. compost), coir can improve plant growth

Beyond erosion control and turf establishment, additional research is needed to identify specific applications in stormwater management.

Properties of coir

This section includes a discussion of chemical and physical properties of coir, and potential contaminants in coir,

Chemical-physical properties of coir

The physical and chemical properties of coir vary with particle size. Noguera et al. (2003) varied particle size of coir dust, studying the properties of coir passing through sieves 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mm in diameter. They observed the following.

As particle diameter increases, air content increased and water holding capacity decreased
Electrical conductivity and micro-element concentrations were greatest in the smallest diameter coir
Bulk density decreased from 0.122 to 0.041 g/cm³ as particle size increased from <0.125 to >2 mm
Pore space increased from 92.3% to 97.3% as particle size increased from <0.125 to >2 mm
Water holding capacity (ml/l) decreased from 855 to 165, with the greatest change occurring with 0.5-1 mm particles
Shrinkage (volume loss on drying) decreased as particle size increased (38% to 15% as particle size increased from <0.125 to >2 mm)
Nutrient availability decreased with increasing particle size, but there were no significant differences between 0.125 and 2 mm. There was a large increase for the smallest particle size.

Based on generally recommended plant specifications, the researchers concluded the 0.25-0.5 mm size appears most suited for plant growth, with some addition of larger particles recommended. Abad et al. (2005) similarly concluded that a mix of particle sizes is likely to be optimum for use of coir as a plant medium.

Another factor affecting chemical properties of coir are the conditions under which it is prepared. In particular, if soaking in a saline solution is used in the preparation of coir, concentrations of potassium, sodium, chloride can be very high and may interfere with plant growth.

The following table summarizes data from the literature on physical and chemical properties of coir. Some general conclusions include the following.

Coir is slightly acidic but not as acidic as peat
Available nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, and zinc are low, while sodium, chloride, and potassium are high, particularly if the coir was prepared in a saline solution
Coir has a very high water holding capacity
Coir has a high germination index compared to compost (Lodolini et al., 2017)
Coir dust does not collapse when wet or shrink excessively as it dries (Cresswell)

Chemical and physical properties of coir.
Link to this table

Property	Range found in literature¹	Median value from literature
Total phosphorus (% dry wt)	0.036 - 0.41	0.036
Total nitrogen (% dry wt)	0.24 - 0.5	0.45
Total potassium (% dry wt)	0.4 - 2.39	0.819
Total carbon (%)	42 - 49	47.1
Total hydrogen (%)		4.4
pH	4.9 - 6.9	5.9
Cation exchange capacity (cmol/kg)	31.7 - 130	50
Electrical conductivity (ds/m)	39 - 2900	582
Total calcium (%)	0.18-0.47	0.40
Total magnesium (%)	0.11-0.47	0.36
Total copper (mg/kg)	3.1-10.3	4.2
Total zinc (mg/kg)	4.0-9.8	7.5
Total manganese (mg/kg)	12.5-92	17
Bulk density (g/cm³)	0.025 - 0.132	0.06
Water holding capacity (% by wt)	137 - 1100	566
Total pore space (%)	85.5 - 98.3	95.2

Primary references for this data:

Cresswell
Abad et al., 2002
Abad et al., 2005
Asiah et al., 2004
Kumar et al., 2010
Lodolini et al., 2017
Shrestha et al., 2019

Potential contaminants in coir

There are few concerns with contaminants in coir. For coir prepared with saline solutions, sodium and chloride will be elevated and possibly at levels of concern for plants if the coir is not washed. Polyphenols and phenolic acids in coir can be phytotoxic and inhibit plant growth when coir is used without other amendments such as fertilizer or compost (Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2016). Metal concentrations are well below Tier 1 Soil Reference Values. Organic contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, are not a concern.

Effects of coir on physical and chemical properties of soil and bioretention media

In this section we provide information on effects of coir on pollutant attenuation and on physical properties of soil and engineered media.

Effects of coir on retention and fate of phosphorus

There are limited studies on coir retention of phosphorus at concentrations typically found in stormwater runoff (less than 0.5 mg/L). Adsorption studies show that phosphorus adsorption at higher concentrations (greater than 1 mg/L) occurs through ion exchange and chemisorption being mechanisms for adsorption, with sulfate competing with phosphate for adsorption sites)(Takaijudin and Ghani, 2014; Kumar et al., 2010; Namasivayam and Sangeetha, 2004).

Shrestha et al. (2019) studied phosphorus leaching from columns containing mixtures of soil, compost, spent lime, and coir. Using tap water with no detectable phosphorus, they observed that adding coir (10% by weight) to a 70-20 soil-compost mix did not decrease phosphorus leaching compared to an 80-20 soil-compost mix. Similar results were observed for media with 40% compost. Hongpakdee and Ruamrungsri (2015) observed reduced phosphorus leaching at the flowering stage, possibly due to increased plant vigor and uptake in treatments containing coir. Herrera Environmental Consultants (2015) conducting flushing and leaching experiments for a variety of media mixtures, including mixtures containing coir. Mixtures of coir and granular activated carbon (GAC) or ash showed orthophosphorus concentrations of 0.021 and 0.052 mg/L, respectively, when flushed with solutions containing less than 0.004 mg/L. For leaching experiments, influent orthophosphate concentrations were 0.323 mg/L and effluent concentrations for coir-GAC and coir-ash mixtures were 0.025 and 0.164 mg/L, respectively. However, the researchers attributed retention of phosphorus to the GAC and ash rather than coir. The researchers also observed decreasing orthophosphorus leachate concentrations with time.

Additional research is needed to understand the phosphorus retention or leaching from media containing coir. Research to date suggests coir will not retain phosphorus in stormwater runoff but will not significantly contribute to leaching from engineered media.

Effects of coir on retention and fate of other pollutants

There is limited research on retention and leaching of pollutants from coir. Shrestha et al. (2019) observed that media containing coir performed similar to spent lime for ammonium and nitrate retention and leached significantly less of these chemicals than treatments containing compost. Herrera Environmental Consultants (2015) observed similar results and also observed that mixtures of coir and either granular activated carbon or ash reduced copper and zinc leaching compared to media mixtures consisting of just soil and compost. Because concentrations of potential pollutants are low in coir, leaching at concentrations of concern appears unlikely. An exception is coir that was soaked in salt water, which may contribute to high sodium, potassium, and chloride concentrations.

Effects of coir on soil physical and hydraulic properties

Coir has several properties that may improve soil physical and hydraulic properties (Cresswell; Noguera et al., 2003; Abad et al., 2005; Small et al., 2018; Lodolini et al., 2018; Arachchi and Somasiri, 1997).

Coir dust remains relatively hydrophylic (water attracting) even when it is air dry
Coir dust does not collapse when wet or shrink excessively as it dries
Increases water holding capacity
Increases soil porosity
Decreases soil bulk density

Effects of coir on soil fertility, plant growth, and microbial function

Advantages of coir over peat (Source:Ministry of MSME, Government of India. 2016)
Requires lesser amount of lime due to high pH
Quick and easy rewetting after drying, while peat becomes hydrophobic on drying
Requires short time for irrigation to replace loss of water and drainage from pot, saving fertilizer due to non leaching of nutrients
Higher capillary wetting property
Able to provide aeration in base of mix
Very resilient and exceptional physical stability when wet or dried

Pure coir is not suitable for plant growth. It has a high C:N ratio (>100) and a high lignin content, resulting in slow decomposition and immobilization of plant nutrients. In addition, polyphenols and phenolics acids in the coir can be phytotoxic and inhibit plant growth (Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2016).

When composted and added as an amendment to a growing media, coir improves plant growth, with coir outperforming peat in several studies. In the absence of composting, nitrogen and phosphorus additions will likely be necessary, depending on plant requirements. Calcium and magnesium additions may also be needed. Concentrations of other nutrients and micronutrients are generally acceptable for most plant species (Cresswell; Asiah et al., 2004; Noguera et al., 2003; Abad et al., 2002; Meerow, 1997; Lodolini et al., 2017; Hongpakdee and Ruamrungsri, 2015; Small et al., 2015; Scagel, 2003; Arachchi and Somasiri, 1997). Noguera et al. (2003) showed that, based on generally recommended plant specifications, 0.25-0.5 mm diameter coir particles appear most suited for plant growth, with some addition of larger particles recommended. Abad et al. (2005) similarly recommended a mix of particle sizes.

Standards, classification, testing, and distributors

Coir standards and specifications

Recommended values for coir used in a growth media (Source: see reference list in this section)
pH	5.2 - 6.8
Electrical conductivity (ms/cm)	0.50 – 1.20 (lower part of range typically preferred)
Cation exchange capacity (meq/100g)	20 - 40
Nitrogen (%)	0.10
Phosphorus (%)	0.01
Potassium (%)	0.50
Copper (% minimum)	1.5
C:N ratio (minimum)	110
Lignin (%)	30 - 35
Total organic matter (% minimum)	75
Moisture (%)	15 - 20
Ash content (%)	1.0 - 1.5
Impurities	<3%
Fiber content	<2%
Expansion	> 12 l/kg
Water holding capacity	3-4 l/kg

Recommended specifications for coir when used in a growing media are shown in the adjacent table and include the following.

Moisture content less than 20%
Compression ratio 5:1
pH 5.4-6.0
Electrical conductivity less than 0.65 millimhos/cm (this ensures K, Na, Cl, Ca, and Mg contents are within acceptable limits)
Not be more than two years old and should not be decomposed
Golden brown in color
Free from other contamination, sand and other foreign materials
Free from weeds and seeds

Coir should be composted or incorporated into media containing a nutrient (N and P) source, such as compost. Alternatively, liming or addition of microorganisms may enhance decomposition of coir, which subsequently aids in release of nutrients from the coir. The Ministry of MSME, Government of India (2016) provide a discussion of different composting materials and methods, including specifications.

References containing specifications are provided below. Note that most of these references include information on the packaged material (e.g. bags, blocks, briquettes), such as weight and size.

Distributors

Distributors of coir for use in bioretention media (e.g. horticultural use) can readily be found on the internet and we do not make specific recommendations. When purchasing coir, the following questions should be asked.

Were the husks loosened using fresh water or salt water?
If salt water was used, has the coir been desalinized (e.g. residual salt washed out)?
How was the coir dried (air or mechanical drying)?
If the material was compacted (e.g. bricks), does it meet specifications (see above)?
How long has the coir been left to mature (>6 months preferred)?
Does the coir meet specifications described above?
Has the coir been treated to prevent infestation?
Has the material been sieved to achieve desired particle size distribution?

Test methods

Packaged coir is typically tested and meets specifications as described above. Standardized testing does not appear to exist for coir, but several methods for testing different characteristics appear to be appropriate.

The following references provide information on testing of coir.

The Ministry of MSME, Government of India (2016) provide a discussion of test methods for pH, moisture content, ash content, organic matter and organic carbon content, electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, phosphorus content, C:N ratio, and potassium content.
Williams Enterprises provides test methods for electrical conductivity, pH, moisture content, fiber content, impurities (sand), expansion or breakout volume, and water retention
Evergreen Coirs provides test methods for electrical conductivity, pH, impurities (sand), expansion volume, moisture, and weed content

Effects of aging

Coir has a high C:N ratio, ranging from 75 to 186, with a median of 115 (Abad et al., 2002; Abad et al., 2005; Shrestha et al., 2019; Meerow, 1997; Arenas et al., 2002). It also contains a high lignin content and therefore decomposes relatively slowly unless nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus, are added to the media (Amlan and Devi, 2001). Composting is recommended to increase nutrient availability, which in turn may increase the rate of decomposition. Similarly, liming or addition of specific microorganisms can enhance decomposition (Prabhu and Thomas, 2002). Even when decomposition is facilitated, the life expectancy of coir exceeds two years (Newman 2007).

Prabhu and Thomas (2002) provide an extensive discussion of coir decomposition.

Storage, handling, and field application

Store in a cool dry place
Keep away from weedkillers and other garden chemicals
If material is containerized, reseal after use
Recommended application rates are 10-15 tons per hectare.

There are few handling concerns. Dust may be an eye irritant. Examples of material and safety data sheets can be found at the following links.

Sustainability

Coir dust is a sustainable alternative to peat. Historically, little coir has been utilized and has therefore been disposed as a waste. Prabhu and Thomas (2002), for example, estimated that in India alone, 1.5 million tonnes of coir pith could be obtained annually but only 500,000 were produced at the time of their study. More recently coir production in India has been estimated at about 1 million tonnes annually (Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2016). Studies are underway to expand existing markets and develop technologies for manufacturing coir dust from coir fiber (Praveenkumar and Agamoorthi 2017; Varma, 2018).

References

Abad, M., P. Noguera, R. Puchades, A. Maquieira, V. Noguera. 2002. Physico-chemical and chemical properties of some coconut coir dusts for use as a peat substitute for containerized ornamental plants. Bioresource Technology. 82:241-245.
Abad, M., F. Fornes, C. Carrion, V. Noguera, P. Noguera, A. Maquieira, R. Puchades. 2005. Physical Properties of Various Coconut Coir Dusts Compared to Peat. Hort Sci. 40:7:2138-2144.
Alam, F. An Overview of Coconut or Coir Fiber. Accessed from https://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2014/01/properties-of-coconutcoir-fiber.html on 2/13/20.
Amlan, D., and L.S. Devi. 2001. Effect of Organic and Inorganic Amendments on CO2 Evolution and Rate of Decomposition of Coir Dust. Journal of Tropical Agriculture. 39:184-185.
Anand, H.S., D. L. Suseela, and H.R. Nagaraju. 2002. Chemical and bio-chemical characterization of coir dust composts as influenced by pretreatment and enrichment. 17th WCSS, 14-21 August, 2002, Thailand. Symposium 58, Paper 278. 6 p.
Arachchi, L.P.V., and L.L.W. Somasiri. 1997. Use of Coir Dust on the Productivity of Coconut on Sandy Soils. Cocos. 12:54-71.
Arenas, M., C.S. Vavrina, J.A. Cornell, E.A. Hanlon, G.J. Hochmuth. 2002. Coir as an Alternative to Peat in Media for Tomato Transplant Production. Hort Sci. 37:2:309-312.
Asiah A., Mohd. Razi, I., Mohd, Khanif Y., Marziah M. & Shaharuddin M. 2004. Physical and Chemical Properties of Coconut Coir Dust and Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch and the Growth of Hybrid Heat Tolerant Cauliflower Plant. PertanikaJ. Trop. Agric. Sci. 27(2): 121 -133.
Cresswell, G. Coir Dust a Proven Alternative to Peat. p 1-5. In: Proceedings of the Australian Potting Mix Manufacturers Conference, Sydney.
Evans, M.R., S. Konduru, R.H. Stamps. 1996. Source Variation in Physical and Chemical Properties of Coconut Coir Dust. Hort Sci. 31:6:965-967.
Herrera Environmental Consultants. 2015. Analysis of Bioretention Soil Media for Improved Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Copper Retention – Final Report. 340 p.
Hongpakdee, P., and S. Ruamrungsri. 2015. Water Use Efficiency, Nutrient Leaching, and Growth in Potted Marigolds Affected by Coconut Coir Dust Amended in Substrate Media. Hort. Environ. Biotechnol. 56:1:27-35
Kumar, P., S. Chand, and V.C. Srivastava. 2010. Phosphate Removal from Aqueous Solution Using Coir-pith Activated Carbon. Separation Science and Technology. 45:1-8.
Lodolini, E.M., F. Pica, F. Massetani, and D. Neri. 2017. Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Some Alternative Growing Substances. International Journal of Soil Science. 12:1:32-38.
Meerow, A. 1997. Coir Dust, A Viable Alternative to Peat Moss.
Ministry of MSME, Government of India. 2016. Coir Pith, Wealth from Waste, a reference. India International Coir Fair, July 15-18, 2016. 110p.
Namasivayam C., D.Sangeetha. 2004. Equilibrium and kinetic studies of adsorption of phosphate onto ZnCl2 activated coir pith carbon. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 280:2:359-365
Newman, J. 2007. Core facts about coir. Nursey Management. https://www.nurserymag.com/article/core-facts-about-coir/ accessed 12/18/20.
Noguera, P., M. Abad, R. Puchades, A. Maquieira, and V. Noguera. 2003. Influence of Particle Size on Physical and Chemical Properties of Coconut Coir Dust as Container Medium. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 34:3/4:593-605.
Prabhu, S.R., and G.V. Thomas. 2002. Biological conversion of coir pith into a value-added organic resource and its application in Agri-Horticulture: Current status, prospects and perspective. Journal of Plantation Crops. 30:1:1-17.
Scagel, C.F. 2003. Growth and Nutrient Use of Ericaceous Plants Grown in Media Amedned with Sphagnum Moss Peat or Coir Dust. Hort Sci. 38:1:46-54.
Shrestha, P., M. T. Salzl, I. J. Jimenez, N. Pradhan, M. Hay, H. R. Wallace, J. N. Abrahamson and G. E. Small. Efficacy of Spent Lime as a Soil Amendment for Nutrient Retention in Bioretention Green Stormwater Infrastructure. Water 2019, 11(8), 1575
Small, Gaston E , Wihlm, Spencer E , Wallace, Hannah R , Abrahamson, Jenna N , Deile, Madison P , Mahre, Erin K , Fischer, John PH , Jimenez, Ivan J , Shrestha, Paliza , Salzl, Michael T. Final Report: Soil Amendments for Enhanced Phosphorus Retention: Implications forGreen Infrastructure Design. Accessed at https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.abstractDetail/abstract/10938/report/F on 2/13/20.
Takaijudin, H., and A.A. Ghani. 2014. The Impact of Stormwater Runoff on Nutrient Removal in Sand Columns. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 567. 155-160. 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.567.155.
Varma, M.S. 2018. NCRMI’s pith technology to boost coir exports. Financial Express. Accessed at https://www.financialexpress.com/market/commodities/ncrmis-pith-technology-to-boost-coir-exports/1310190/ on 12/18/20.

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 Water treatment residuals are the by-products of water treatment for drinking water. Drinking water treatment residuals are primarily sediment, metal (aluminum, iron or calcium) oxide/hydroxides, activated carbon, and lime removed from raw water during the water purification process ([[Soil amendments to enhance phosphorus sorption#References|Agyin-Birikorang et al.]], 2009). Aluminum sulphate (commonly known as alum), ferric chloride and lime are added as flocculants in the water treatment process.
-Biomass waste materials appropriate for biochar production include crop residues (both field residues and processing residues such as nut shells, fruit pits, bagasse, etc); yard, food and forestry wastes; and animal manures. Clean <span title="a raw material used to provide energy"> '''feedstocks'''</span> with 10 to 20 percent moisture and high <span title="a complex organic polymer deposited in the cell walls of many plants, making them rigid and woody"> '''lignin'''</span> content are recommended. Examples are field residues and woody biomass. Using contaminated feedstocks, including feedstocks from railway embankments or contaminated land, can introduce toxins into the soil, drastically increase soil pH and/or inhibit plants from absorbing minerals. The most common contaminants are heavy metals—including cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, mercury, nickel and arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
-Biochar is black, highly porous, lightweight, fine-grained and has a large surface area. Approximately 70 percent of its composition is carbon. The remaining percentage consists of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen among other elements. Biochar’s chemical composition varies depending on the feedstocks used to make it and methods used to heat it.
+Coconut (''Cocus nucifera'' L.) pith or coir, the <span title="the middle layer of the pericarp of a fruit, between the endocarp and the exocarp"> '''mesocarp'''</span> of the fruit, is a waste product that has potential benefits in growth media, including <span title="Engineered media is a mixture of sand, fines (silt, clay), and organic matter utilized in stormwater practices, most frequently in bioretention practices. The media is typically designed to have a rapid infiltration rate, attenuate pollutants, and allow for plant growth."> [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Design_criteria_for_bioretention#Materials_specifications_-_filter_media '''engineered media''']</span> used in stormwater applications. Coir dust is peat-like and consists of short fibres (< 2 cm). Coir has a large surface area per unit volume, is hydrophilic, and therefore has the ability to absorb water. It's primary components are lignin and cellulose, each making up about 45% of coir's dry weight. Water soluble fractions typically account for about 5% of coir, by weight ([http://coirboard.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Coir-Pith.pdf  Ministry of MSME, Government of India], 2016; Alam, accessed from https://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2014/01/properties-of-coconutcoir-fiber.html on 2/13/20).
-Biochar benefits for soil may include but are not limited to
+There are three basic types of coir material.
-*enhancing <span title="Soil structure describes the arrangement of the solid parts of the soil and of the pore space located between them. It is determined by how individual soil granules clump, bind together, and aggregate, resulting in the arrangement of soil pores between them."> '''soil structure'''</span> and <span title="Soil aggregates are groups of soil particles that bind to each other more strongly than to adjacent particles. The space between the aggregates provide pore space for retention and exchange of air and water."> '''soil aggregation'''</span>;
+#Coco pith is a rich, brown color and has a high water retention capacity.
-*increasing water retention;
+#Coco fibers are stringy bundles that does not readily retain water and will break down over time.
-*decreasing acidity;
+#Coco chips are small chunks of coir that combine the properties of the peat and fiber. Coco chips retain water well and also allow for air pockets.
-*reducing <span title="a potent greenhouse gas emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of wastewater"> '''nitrous oxide'''</span> emissions;
-*improving <span title="Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e. empty) spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0% and 100%."> '''porosity'''</span>;
-*regulating nitrogen <span title="a soluble chemical drained away from soil, ash, or similar material by the action of percolating liquid, especially rainwater"> '''leaching'''</span>;
-*improving <span title="a measure of the amount of salts in soil"> '''electrical conductivity'''</span>; and
-*improving microbial properties.
-Biochar is also found to be beneficial for composting, since it reduces greenhouse gas emissions and prevents the loss of nutrients in the compost material. It also promotes microbial activity, which in turn accelerates the composting process. Plus, it helps reduce the compost’s ammonia losses, bulk density and odor ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Spears, 2018; Hoffman-Krull, 2019]).
+Coir production involves separating the husk from the shelled nut and soaking the husk in water. The fibers are then separated from the pith and the resulting material is screened to create a uniform <span title="an index (means of expression) indicating what sizes (particle size) of particles are present in what proportions (relative particle amount as a percentage where the total amount of particles is 100 %) in the sample particle group to be measured"> '''particle size'''</span>. A dust is created during this process and the dust may be air dried and packaged. Prematurely harvested (green) fruits are often soaked in a saline solution to facilitate the separation process, which in turn affects the chemical properties of the resulting coir dust.
-==Applications for biochar in stormwater management==
+Coir benefits may include but are not limited to the following.
-Biochar has several potential applications for stormwater management. Below is a brief review of what we know about biochar.
+*Coir has a neutral pH
-*Biochar increases water holding capacity of soil, improves aggregation in fine-textured soils, increases saturated hydraulic conductivity in fine- and medium-textured soils, and decreases hydraulic conductivity in very coarse-textured soils.
+*Coir improves <span title="the ability of a certain soil texture to physically hold water against the force of gravity"> '''water holding capacity'''</span> of soil
-*Improve the fertility of nutrient-poor soils. In nutrient-poor soils, biochar appears to consistently improve nutrient cycling and availability for plants. Results for other soils are mixed and depend on the biochar and soil characteristics.
+*Coir may improve drainage in <span title="soil consisting primarily of clay and silt"> '''fine textured soil'''</span> by creating pore spaces as it degrades
-*Biochar generally improves retention of metals and PAHs.
+*Coir increases the <span title="carbon-based compounds, originally derived from living organisms"> '''organic matter'''</span> content of soil, which can improve soil structure and aggregation
-*Results for bacteria and pathogens are mixed, but some studies indicate increased retention, primarily associated with straining resulting from increased surface area and micropore structure in biochar-amended soils.
+*Coir production is sustainable and therefore does not contribute to greenhouse gas emissions
-*Biochar is likely to have limited effects on phosphorus retention unless specifically amended to retain phosphorus.
+*Coir is a suitable substitute for peat, the mining of which is not sustainable
-Possible implications for stormwater management include the following.
+==Applications for coir in stormwater management==
-#'''Engineered media'''. Biochar incorporated into engineered media can increase water retention and infiltration. Low-nutrient biochars (e.g. wood-based versus manure- or sludge-based) produced at relatively low temperatures (less than 600<sup>o</sup>C) can improve phosphorus retention. Biochar may enhance nutrient cycling and improve fertility in media with relatively low nutrient concentrations (e.g. media mixes having lower fractions of compost).
+Coir has potential applications for stormwater management. Below is a brief summary.
-#'''Contaminant hotspots'''. Biochar can be incorporated into treatment practices in areas with high or potentially high concentrations of metals and organic pollutants.
+*Coir increases water holding capacity of soil
-#'''Turf amendment/soil compaction'''. Biochar can added to turf or compacted media to improve hydraulic performance and nutrient cycling.
+*Coir may reduce the bulk density and improve saturated hydraulic conductivity in <span title="the process in which a stress applied to a soil causes densification as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains. Compaction is desired in construction practices and undesirable when promoting infiltration into soil."> [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/Alleviating_compaction_from_construction_activities '''compacted soil''']</span>
-#'''Filtration practices'''.  Biochar can be used alone or mixed with other components for stormwater filtration applications, including but not limited to the following:
+*Coir is likely to have limited effects on phosphorus retention unless specifically amended to retain phosphorus
-##Filtration media in new treatment systems, especially roof downspout units and aboveground vaults;
+*Coir mats and logs are used for <span title="practices designed to prevent or minimize erosion> [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Erosion_prevention_practices '''erosion protection''']</span>
-##Supplemental or replacement media in existing treatment systems such as sand filters;
+*When properly <span title="the product resulting from the controlled biological decomposition of organic materials that has been sanitized through the generation of heat and stabilized to the point that it is beneficial to plant growth"> [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Compost_and_stormwater_management '''composted''']</span> or incorporated into engineered media with a source of nutrients (e.g. compost), coir can improve plant growth
-##Direct media addition to a stormwater storage vault ;
-##Direct application in bioretention or swale systems;
-##Filtration socks and slings;
-##Hanging filters in catch basins.
-#'''Underground infiltration basins and trenches'''. Many underground infiltration practices are constructed in very coarse textured soils that may have limited ability to retain pollutants. Biochar can reduce infiltration rates and adsorb pollutants in these systems.
-#'''Climate-related effects'''. While not specifically a stormwater objective, biochar incorporated into stormwater practices can sequester carbon and reduce nitrous oxide emissions.
-{{:Potential biochar stormwater applications}}
+Beyond erosion control and turf establishment, additional research is needed to identify specific applications in stormwater management.
-Further reading
+==Properties of coir==
-*[https://pprc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Emerging-Stormwater-BMPs_Biochar-as-Filtration-Media_2014.pdf Emerging Best Management Practices in Stormwater: Biochar as Filtration Media] - Pacific Northwest Pollution Prevention Resource Center
+This section includes a discussion of chemical and physical properties of coir, and potential contaminants in coir,
-*[Ihttps://www.deeproot.com/blog/blog-entries/improving-stormwater-control-measure-performance-with-biochar Improving Stormwater Control Measure Performance with Biochar] - Deeproot
-*[http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/IDEA/FinalReports/Highway/NCHRP182_Final_Report.pdf Reducing Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loading with Biochar Addition to Highway Greenways] - Final Report for NCHRP IDEA Project 182
-*Mohanty et al. (2018)
-==Effects of feedstock and production temperature==
+===Chemical-physical properties of coir===
-Although the basic structure of all biochars is similar, the physical-chemical properties of biochar varies with the source material and with the temperature used in production.
+The physical and chemical properties of coir vary with particle size. Noguera et al. (2003) varied particle size of coir dust, studying the properties of coir passing through sieves 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mm in diameter. They observed the following.
+*As particle diameter increases, air content increased and water holding capacity decreased
+*<span title="a measure of the amount of salts in soil"> '''Electrical conductivity'''</span> and micro-element concentrations were greatest in the smallest diameter coir
+*Bulk density decreased from 0.122 to 0.041 g/cm<sup>3</sup> as particle size increased from <0.125 to >2 mm
+*Pore space increased from 92.3% to 97.3% as particle size increased from <0.125 to >2 mm
+*Water holding capacity (ml/l) decreased from 855 to 165, with the greatest change occurring with 0.5-1 mm particles
+*Shrinkage (volume loss on drying) decreased as particle size increased (38% to 15% as particle size increased from <0.125 to >2 mm)
+*Nutrient availability decreased with increasing particle size, but there were no significant differences between 0.125 and 2 mm. There was a large increase for the smallest particle size.
-===Effect of feedstock (source material)===
+Based on generally recommended plant specifications, the researchers concluded the 0.25-0.5 mm size appears most suited for plant growth, with some addition of larger particles recommended. Abad et al. (2005) similarly concluded that a mix of particle sizes is likely to be optimum for use of coir as a plant medium.
-Since a wide variety of organic material can be used to produce biochar, it is not feasible to discuss each material separately. We provide the following general conclusions. Literature used to develop these conclusions is provided at the end of this section.
-*Compared to wood derived biochar, non-wood feedstock such as grass, sludge, and manure yields biochar with fewer aromatic but more aliphatic groups and higher ash content. Greater concentrations of aliphatic compounds are associated with more reactive biochar.
-*Manure- and sludge-based biochar contains higher concentration of nutrients than wood-based biochar and are therefore more likely to be a source of nutrient leaching.
-*Manure- and sludge-based biochar attenuate metals more than wood based biochars
-*Biochar parameters most affected by feedstock properties are total organic carbon, fixed carbon, and mineral elements of biochar. Feedstocks such as sawdust, wheat straw, and peanut shell have higher carbon concentrations than feedstocks such as manure, sludges, and waste paper.
-*Capacity for carbon sequestration is primarily affected by feedstock, with higher carbon compounds having greater sequestration capacity.
-*High ash biochars, such as manures and coffee husk, exhibit higher cation exchange capacity, which may increase nutrient capture, although high initial nutrient concentrations may offset this and even contribute to nutrient loss.
-The [https://biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final1.pdf International Biochar Initiative (see Appendix 6)] proves a classification system for biochar feedstocks, shown below.
+Another factor affecting chemical properties of coir are the conditions under which it is prepared. In particular, if soaking in a saline solution is used in the preparation of coir, concentrations of potassium, sodium, chloride can be very high and may interfere with plant growth.
-*Unprocessed Feedstock Types
-**Rice hulls & straw
-**Maize cobs & stover
-**Non-maize cereal straws
-**Sugar cane bagasse & trash
-**Switch grass, Miscanthus & bamboo
-**Oil crop residues e.g., sugar beet, rapeseed
-**Leguminous crop residues e.g., soy, clover
-**Hemp residues
-**Softwoods (coniferous)
-**Hardwoods (broadleaf)
-*Processed Feedstock Types
-**Cattle manure
-**Pig manure
-**Poultry litter
-**Sheep manure
-**Horse manure
-**Paper mill sludge
-**Sewage sludge
-**Distillers grain
-**Anaerobic digester sludge
-**Biomass fraction of MSW – woody material
-**Biomass fraction of MSW – yard trimmings
-**Biomass fraction of MSW – food waste
-**Food industry waste
-'''Literature'''
+The following table summarizes data  from the literature on physical and chemical properties of coir. Some general conclusions include the following.
-*Zhaoa et al. (2013) examined cow manure, pig manure, shrimp hull, bone dregs, wastewater sludge, waste paper, sawdust, grass, wheat straw, peanut shell, Chlorella, and water weeds
+*Coir is slightly acidic but not as acidic as peat
-*Rimena et al., (2017) examined wood-based biochars (eucalyptus sawdust, pine bark), sugarcane bagasse, chicken manure, and coffee husk
+*Available nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, and zinc are low, while sodium, chloride, and potassium are high, particularly if the coir was prepared in a saline solution
-*Jindo et al. (2014) examined rice husk, rice straw, apple tree wood chips, and oak tree wood chips
+*Coir has a very high water holding capacity
-*Mohanty et al. (2018) provide an extensive discussion and literature review of different feedstocks and associated biochar properties
+*Coir has a high germination index compared to compost (Lodolini et al., 2017)
-*Gai et al. (2014) studied twelve biochars produced from wheat straw, corn straw, and peanut shell
+*Coir dust does not collapse when wet or shrink excessively as it dries (Cresswell)
-*[https://biochar-international.org/biochar-feedstocks/ International Biochar Initiative] provide a general discussion of feedstocks
-*Conz et al. (2017) studied poultry litter, sugarcane straw, rice hull and sawdust
-*[https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/W829.pdf Jahromi and Fulcher] studied biosolids and green waste, corn straw and rice straw, gasifed rice hulls, hardwood, pelleted agricultural or forestry residues, switchgrass, and timber harvest residues
-*Zhao et (2019) studied sewage sludge, agriculture biomass waste, and wood biomass waste
-===Effect of production temperature===
+{{:Chemical and physical properties of coir}}
-Changes in the properties of biochar result from loss of volatile organic matter as temperature increases. This leads to a gradual loss in the number of functional groups on the biochar and increased aromaticity as temperature increases.
-In general, the following conclusions are applicable for biochar used in stormwater applications.
+===Potential contaminants in coir===
-*If retention of nutrients and most pollutants is desired, biochars produced at temperatures less than 600<sup>o</sup>C should be selected
+There are few concerns with contaminants in coir. For coir prepared with saline solutions, sodium and chloride will be elevated and possibly at levels of concern for plants if the coir is not washed. Polyphenols and phenolic acids in coir can be phytotoxic and inhibit plant growth when coir is used without other amendments such as fertilizer or compost (Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2016). Metal concentrations are well below Tier 1 Soil Reference Values. Organic contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, are not a concern.
-*If the goal is to improve soil physical or hydraulic properties biochars produced at temperatures greater than 600<sup>o</sup>C should be selected
-The following information comes from a literature review of the effects of production temperature on biochar
+==Effects of coir on physical and chemical properties of soil and bioretention media==
-*Biochar yield and contents of N, hydrogen and oxygen decrease as pyrolysis temperature increases from 400˚C to 700˚C
+In this section we provide information on effects of coir on pollutant attenuation and on physical properties of soil and engineered media.
-*pH and contents of ash and carbon increase with greater pyrolysis temperature.
-*Particle size and porosity increase with greater pyrolysis temperature.
-*Hydrophobicity increases with greater pyrolysis temperature.
-[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References '''Literature''']
+===Effects of coir on retention and fate of phosphorus===
-*Mohanty et al., (2018)
+There are limited studies on coir retention of phosphorus at concentrations typically found in stormwater runoff (less than 0.5 mg/L). Adsorption studies show that phosphorus adsorption at higher concentrations (greater than 1 mg/L) occurs through ion exchange and chemisorption being mechanisms for adsorption, with sulfate competing with phosphate for adsorption sites)(Takaijudin and Ghani, 2014; Kumar et al., 2010; Namasivayam and Sangeetha, 2004).
-*Zhaoa et al., (2013)
-*Klasson, (2017)
-*Zhao et al., (2017)
-*Jindo et al., (2014)
-*Wang et al., (2018)
-*Rimena et al., (2017)
-*Lyu et al. (2016)
-*Gai et al.. (2014)
-*Conz et al. (2017)
-==Properties of biochar==
+Shrestha et al. (2019) studied phosphorus leaching from columns containing mixtures of soil, compost, spent lime, and coir. Using tap water with no detectable phosphorus, they observed that adding coir (10% by weight) to a 70-20 soil-compost mix did not decrease phosphorus leaching compared to an 80-20 soil-compost mix. Similar results were observed for media with 40% compost. Hongpakdee and Ruamrungsri (2015) observed reduced phosphorus leaching at the flowering stage, possibly due to increased plant vigor and uptake in treatments containing coir. Herrera Environmental Consultants (2015) conducting flushing and leaching experiments for a variety of media mixtures, including mixtures containing coir. Mixtures of coir and granular activated carbon (GAC) or ash showed orthophosphorus concentrations of 0.021 and 0.052 mg/L, respectively, when flushed with solutions containing less than 0.004 mg/L. For leaching experiments, influent orthophosphate concentrations were 0.323 mg/L and effluent concentrations for coir-GAC and coir-ash mixtures were 0.025 and 0.164 mg/L, respectively. However, the researchers attributed retention of phosphorus to the GAC and ash rather than coir. The researchers also observed decreasing orthophosphorus leachate concentrations with time.
-This section includes a discussion of chemical and physical properties of biochar, and potential contaminants in biochar, .
-===Chemical-physical properties of biochar===
+Additional research is needed to understand the phosphorus retention or leaching from media containing coir. Research to date suggests coir will not retain phosphorus in stormwater runoff but will not significantly contribute to leaching from engineered media.
-The properties of biochar vary depending on the feedstock and production temperature, as discussed above. Consequently there is considerable variability in the chemical and physical properties of different biochars. The table below summarizes data from our literature review. Some conclusions from the literature are summarized below.
-*'''Biochar has a large surface area.'''
-*'''Cation exchange capacity (CEC) decreases as pyrolysis temperature increases'''. This is due to the loss of volatile organic content and associated functional groups as temperature increases. As CEC decreases, the ability of biochar to retain negatively charged chemicals, such as phosphate, decreases.
-*'''Non-wood vegetative feedstocks have a greater CEC than wood feedstocks.''' This is due to a greater percentage of aliphatic compounds and associated functional groups. Non-wood feedstocks primarily consist of grasses.
-*'''Sludges and manure-based biochars have high nutrient content and are thus not satisfactory for managing stormwater'''
-{{:Chemical and physical properties of biochar}}
+===Effects of coir on retention and fate of other pollutants===
+There is limited research on retention and leaching of pollutants from coir. Shrestha et al. (2019) observed that media containing coir performed similar to spent lime for ammonium and nitrate retention and leached significantly less of these chemicals  than treatments containing compost. Herrera Environmental Consultants (2015) observed similar results and also observed that mixtures of coir and either granular activated carbon or ash reduced copper and zinc leaching compared to media mixtures consisting of just soil and compost. Because concentrations of potential pollutants are low in coir, leaching at concentrations of concern appears unlikely. An exception is coir that was soaked in salt water, which may contribute to high sodium, potassium, and chloride concentrations.
-===Potential contaminants in biochar===
+===Effects of coir on soil physical and hydraulic properties===
-Potential contaminants associated with biochar are a function of the source material and production temperature. Of greatest concern are metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Oleszcuk et al.] (2013) examined metal and PAH concentrations in four biochars (elephant grass, coconut shell, wicker, and wheat straw). Metal concentrations (mg/kg) in the biochars are summarized below. Tier 1 Soil Reference Values (SRVs) are included in parentheses.
+Coir has several properties that may improve soil physical and hydraulic properties (Cresswell; Noguera et al., 2003; Abad et al., 2005; Small et al., 2018; Lodolini et al., 2018; Arachchi and Somasiri, 1997).
-*Cd: 0.04-0.87 (25)
+*Coir dust remains relatively hydrophylic (water attracting) even when it is air dry
-*Cu: nd-3.81 (100)
+*Coir dust does not collapse when wet or shrink excessively as it dries
-*Ni: nd-9.95 (560)
+*Increases water holding capacity
-*Pb: 20.6-23.7 (300)
+*Increases soil porosity
-*Zn: 30.2-102.0 (8700)
+*Decreases soil bulk density
-*Cr: nd-18.0 (44,000 for CrIII; 87 for CrVI)
-Concentrations in biochar are well below Tier 1 SRVs.
+===Effects of coir on soil fertility, plant growth, and microbial function===
+{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; border:3px; border-style:solid; border-color:#FF0000; margin-left: 10px; width:500px;"
+|-
+| style="text-align: center;"| '''Advantages of coir over peat (Source:Ministry of MSME, Government of India. 2016)'''
+|-
+| Requires lesser amount of lime due to high pH
+|-
+| Quick and easy rewetting after drying, while peat becomes hydrophobic on drying
+|-
+| Requires short time for irrigation to replace loss of water and drainage from pot, saving fertilizer due to non leaching of nutrients
+|-
+| Higher capillary wetting property
+|-
+| Able to provide aeration in base of mix
+|-
+| Very resilient and exceptional physical stability when wet or dried
+|}
-In the study by Oleszcuk et al. (2013), total PAHs ranged from 1124.2 ng/g to 28339.1 ng/g. The dominant group of PAHs were 3-ring compounds which comprised 64.6% to 82.6% of total PAHs content. The primary compounds included, in order of abundance, phenanthrene, fluorene, anthracene, and pyrene. No 6-ring PAHs were observed. Concentrations of PAHs and other organic contaminants, such as dioxins, decreases with increasing pyrolysis temperature (Lyu et al., 2016).
+Pure coir is not suitable for plant growth. It has a high C:N ratio (>100) and a high lignin content, resulting in slow decomposition and immobilization of plant nutrients. In addition, polyphenols and phenolics acids in the coir can be phytotoxic and inhibit plant growth (Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2016).
-In general, biochars mixed with soil do not inhibit germination or root growth. Biochar may enhance soil fertility by providing nutrients or more commonly by slowing the release of nutrients from materials such as compost. was observed. Toxic effects have been observed for some invertebrates, indicating that in sensitive environments, biochar testing is advisable ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Oleszcuk et al., 2013; Getz et al., 2018; Flesch et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017]) .
+When composted and added as an amendment to a growing media, coir improves plant growth, with coir outperforming peat in several studies. In the absence of composting, nitrogen and phosphorus additions will likely be necessary, depending on plant requirements. Calcium and magnesium additions may also be needed. Concentrations of other nutrients and micronutrients are generally acceptable for most plant species (Cresswell; Asiah et al., 2004; Noguera et al., 2003; Abad et al., 2002; Meerow, 1997; Lodolini et al., 2017; Hongpakdee and Ruamrungsri, 2015; Small et al., 2015; Scagel, 2003; Arachchi and Somasiri, 1997). Noguera et al. (2003) showed that, based on generally recommended plant specifications, 0.25-0.5 mm diameter coir particles appear most suited for plant growth, with some addition of larger particles recommended. Abad et al. (2005) similarly recommended a mix of particle sizes.
-==Effects of biochar on physical and chemical properties of soil and bioretention media==
+==Standards, classification, testing, and distributors==
-In this section we provide information on effects of biochar on pollutant attenuation and the physical properties of soil and bioretention media.
-===Effect of biochar on retention and fate of phosphorus===
-<div style="float:right">
-<table class="infobox" style="border:3px; border-style:solid; border-color:#FF0000; text-align: right; width: 300px; font-size: 100%">
-<tr>
-<td>'''Biochar is not likely to provide significant phosphorus retention in bioretention practices unless impregnated with cations (e.g. magnesium) during production at relatively low temperatures (e.g. less than 600<sup>o</sup>C.)'''
-</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-</div>
-Biochar may have several properties for managing stormwater, such as increased water and pollutant retention, improving soil physical properties, and attenuating bacteria and pathogens. Biochar has been examined as a potential amendment to engineered media in bioretention or other stormwater control practices. With respect to phosphorus, information from the literature is mixed. Below are summaries from several studies.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Mohanty et al.] (2018) observed that biochar does not absorb phosphate efficiently. Phosphorus retention can be enhanced by impregnating biochar with cations such as magnesium and zinc.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Reddy et al. (2014) found that biochar reduced influent phosphate concentrations by 47% in column experiments. Influent concentrations were 0.57 and 0.82 mg/L for unwashed and washed biochar, respectively. These concentrations are on the high end of concentrations found in urban stormwater.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Yaoa et al.] (2011) observed retention in biochar-(sugar beet source)amended soils that were fertilized. Adsorption was dominated by magnesium oxides and maximum adsorption occurred at pH values less than 4.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Zhaoa et al.] (2013) studied different feedstocks and observed high phosphorus concentrations in animal-based feedstocks and wastewater sludge (0.065 - 0.44%) compared to other feedstocks (0.007 - 0.07%)
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Iqbal et al.] (2015) examined leaching of phosphorus from compost (80% yard and 20% food waste) and co-composted biochar (100% fir-forest slash). They found biochar amendments did not significantly reduce the leaching of phosphorus compared to the compost only treatment. Phosphorus leached from biochar, but because phosphorus concentrations in biochar are low, this leaching contributed little total phosphorus. Leached phosphorus was primarily in the form of orthphosphate.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Han et al.] (2018) found that addition of biochar to soil led to increased desorption of phosphorus during winter freeze-thaw cycles.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Soinne et al.] (2014) observed no effect of biochar on phosphorus retention in a sandy and two clay soils.
-===Effect of biochar on retention and fate of other pollutants===
-*'''Nitrogen'''. Biochar effects on nitrogen retention depend on the properties of the biochar and stormwater runoff. Biochars produced at relatively low temperatures (less than 600<sup>o</sup>C) provide some retention of organic nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen in stormwater runoff. Mechanisms for nitrogen retention include adsorption of ammounium and nitrogen immobilization. Leaching of nitrogen may decrease due to increased water holding capacity ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Iqbal et al., 2015; Gai et al., 2014; Zheng et al., 2013; Ding et al., 2010]).
-*'''Metals'''. Biochar enhance retention of metals in stormwater runoff. ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Reddy et al., 2014; Domingues et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2015])
-*'''Organics'''. Biochar significantly retains polynuclear aromatic hydrocrabons in stormwater runoff ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Reddy et al., 2014;  Domingues et al., 2017; Ulrich et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2015])
-*'''Bacteria and viruses'''. Biochar effects on bacteria and virus retention are a function of the particle size of the biochar. Fine-grained biochars enhance removal of bacteria in stormwater runoff through straining of microorganisms ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Reddy et al., 2014; Sasidharan et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2019]).
-*'''Dissolved organic carbon'''. Biochar shows limited retention of dissolved carbon in stormwater runoff ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Iqbal et al., 2015]).
-*'''Greenhouse gas emissions'''. Biochar effectively sequesters carbon and reduces loss of greenhouse gases when incorporated into soil or media, particularly soil with high organic matter content ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Zhaoa et al., 2013; Mohanty et al., 2018; 37.	Agyarko-Mintah et al., 2017]).
-===Effect of biochar on soil physical and hydraulic properties===
-Because of a large surface area and internal porosity, biochar can affect soil physical properties ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Mohanty et al., 2018; Herrera Environmental Consultants, 2015; Iqbal et al., 2015; Imhoff, 2019; Jien and Wang, 2013]). These effects are most pronounced in soils with low organic matter concentration.
-*'''Porosity and surface area'''. Biochar significantly increases the porosity of most soils.
-*'''Water holding capcity'''. Biochar significantly increases the water holding capacity of soil.
-*'''Hydraulic conductivity'''. Biochar increases the hydraulic conductivity of fine- and medium-grained soils and may decrease the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils.
-*'''Structure'''. Biochar enhances aggregation in soils, thus enhancing soil structure and potentially increasing soil macroporosity.
-===Effects of biochar on soil fertility, plant growth, and microbial function===
-<div style="float:right">
-<table class="infobox" style="border:3px; border-style:solid; border-color:#FF0000; text-align: right; width: 300px; font-size: 100%">
-<tr>
-<td>'''Effects of biochar on soil fertility, plant growth, and microbial function are affected by several factors, including feedstock, production method, soil, application rate, and biochar age. Biochar has few negative effects on fertility, plant growth and microbial function and in many cases has the potential to greatly improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions.'''
-</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-</div>
-[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References DeLuca et al.] (2015) provide an extensive discussion of biochar effects on nutrient cycling, fertility, and microbial function in soil. Their paper is based on an extensive review of the literature at the time of their publication. The following discussion is primarily based on information contained in this document. A list of suggested articles is provided at the end of this section.
-Biochars derived from nutrient rich sources such as manure and sludge may directly provide nutrients. Most biochars, however, have limited direct contribution to the nutrient pool with the exception of potassium and ammonium. Biochar may accelerate nutrient cycling over long time scales by serving as a short-term source of highly available nutrients, which become
-incorporated into living biomass and labile soil organic pools. Thus biochar, while typically providing modest inputs of nutrients, enhances the bioavailability of nutrients in soil.
-Because biochar typically enhances soil physical properties, including increasing water holding capacity, improving gas exchange, increasing surface area and availability of microsites for microbes, and in some cases increasing cation exchange capacity, biochar enhances microbial activity in soil. In addition, carbon in biochar provides a sorptive surface that can retain nutrients and thus minimize leaching and volatilization of nutrients.
-Several studies suggest biochar amendments in soil result in increased microbial biomass, while other studies show no effect. Mixed results have also been observed for the effects of biochar on microbial community composition.
+===Coir standards and specifications===
+{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; border:3px; border-style:solid; border-color:#FF0000; margin-left: 10px; width:400px;"
+|-
+| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"| '''Recommended values for coir used in a growth media (Source: see reference list in this section)'''
+|-
+| pH
+| 5.2 - 6.8
+|-
+| Electrical conductivity (ms/cm)
+| 0.50 – 1.20 (lower part of range typically preferred)
+|-
+| Cation exchange capacity (meq/100g)
+| 20 - 40
+|-
+| Nitrogen (%)
+| 0.10
+|-
+| Phosphorus (%)
+| 0.01
+|-
+| Potassium (%)
+| 0.50
+|-
+| Copper (% minimum)
+| 1.5
+|-
+| C:N ratio (minimum)
+| 110
+|-
+| Lignin (%)
+| 30 - 35
+|-
+| Total organic matter (% minimum)
+| 75
+|-
+| Moisture (%)
+| 15 - 20
+|-
+| Ash content (%)
+| 1.0 - 1.5
+|-
+| Impurities
+| <3%
+|-
+| Fiber content
+| <2%
+|-
+| Expansion
+| > 12 l/kg
+|-
+| Water holding capacity
+| 3-4 l/kg
+|}
-Specific conclusions from the DeLuca et al. (2015) paper include the following.
+Recommended specifications for coir when used in a growing media are shown in the adjacent table and include the following.
-*Biochar increases nitrogen mineralization is soils with low mineralization potential (e.g. forest soils). Wood-based biochars appear to have the greatest effect on mineralization.
+*Moisture content less than 20%
-*Aged biochar shows greater accumulation of inorganic nitrogen, suggesting reduced nitrogen availability and cycling over time. Additions of fresh biochar are recommended if continued enhanced nutrient cycling is desired.
+*Compression ratio 5:1
-*Low-temperature biochars have greater nitrogen immobilization due to more bioavailable carbon, but immobilization to these biochars is likely to be short-term.
+*pH 5.4-6.0
-*Biochar effects on nitrogen fixation are mixed, but studies of compost-biochar mixes show a decrease in nitrogen fixation while wood-based biochars show increased fixation.
+*Electrical conductivity less than 0.65 millimhos/cm (this ensures K, Na, Cl, Ca, and Mg contents are within acceptable limits)
-*Phosphorus in wood-based biochars is largely immediately soluble and readily released to soil, where it becomes available to plants. However, the overall phosphorus concentration in wood-based biochars is much lower than in manure- or sludge-based biochars.
+*Not be more than two years old and should not be decomposed
-*Application of biochar at varying rates result in an increase in available soil phosphorus, but there is little evidence this translates into increased plant uptake. This may be due to presence of abundant sites for adsorption in fresh biochars. Phosphorus decreases over time as biochar ages.
+*Golden brown in color
-*Laboratory studies have shown that biochar addition induces an increase in phosphatase activity which would increase the release of P from soil organic matter and organic residues.
+*Free from other contamination, sand and other foreign materials
-*Biochar effects on phosphorus are likely to be greatest in acidic soils, where addition of biochar raises pH and increases the potential adsorption to alkaline metals (calcium, potassium, magnesium).
+*Free from weeds and seeds
-*Biochar effects on sulfur are uncertain, but are likely to be similar to those for phosphorus. Any enhanced adsorption or mobilization, particularly in aged biochar, will most likely be attributable to enhanced water holding capacity and surface area.
-'''Recommended reading'''
+Coir should be composted or incorporated into media containing a nutrient (N and P) source, such as compost. Alternatively, liming or addition of microorganisms may enhance decomposition of coir, which subsequently aids in release of nutrients from the coir. The [http://coirboard.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Coir-Pith.pdf Ministry of MSME, Government of India] (2016) provide a discussion of different composting materials and methods, including specifications.
-*Anderson, C. R., Condron, L. M., Clough, T. J., Fiers, M., Stewart, A., Hill, R. A. and Sherlock, R. R. (2011) ‘Biochar induced soil microbial community change: Implications for biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus’,  Pedobiologia, vol 54, pp309–320.
-*Borchard, N., Wolf, A., Laabs, V., Aeckersberg, R., Scherer, H. W., Moeller, A. and Amelung, W. (2012a) ‘Physical activation of biochar and its meaning for soil fertility and nutrient leaching – a greenhouse experiment’, Soil Use and Management, vol 28, pp177–184
-*Chan, K. Y. and Xu, Z. (2009) ‘Biochar: nutrient properties and their enhancement’, in J. Lehmann and S. Joseph (eds) Biochar for Environmental Management, Earthscan, London, pp 67–84
-*Clough, T. J. and Condron, L. M. (2010) ‘Biochar and the nitrogen cycle: introduction’, Journal of Environmental Quality, vol 39, pp1218–1223
-*Crutchfield, E. F., Merhaut, D. J., Mcgiffen, M. E. and Allen, E. B. (2010) ‘Effects of biochar on nutrient leaching and plant growth’, Hortscience, vol 45, S163–S163.
-*Jeffery, S., Verheijen, F. G. A., Van Der Velde, M. and Bastos, A. C. (2011) ‘A quantitative review of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using meta-analysis’, Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, vol 144, pp175–187
-*Jones, D. L., Rousk, J., Edwards-Jones, G., DeLuca, T. H. and Murphy, D. V. (2012) ‘Biochar-mediated changes in soil quality and plant growth in a three year field trial’, Soil Biology and Biochemistry, vol 45, pp113–124
-*Joseph, S. D., Downie, A., Munroe, P., Crosky, A. and Lehmann, J. (2007) ‘Biochar for carbon sequesteration, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and enhancement of soil fertility; a review of the materials science’ Proceedings from  Australian Combustion Symposium, University of Sydney, Australia, pp1–4
-*Laird, D., Fleming, P., Wang, B., Horton, R. and Karlen, D. (2010) ‘Biochar impact on nutrient leaching from a Midwestern agricultural soil’, Geoderma, vol 158, pp436–442
-*Lehmann, J., Rillig, M. C., Thies, J., Masiello, C. A., Hockaday, W. C. and Crowley, D. (2011) ‘Biochar effects of soil biota – A review’, Soil Biology and Biochemistry, vol 43, pp1812–1836
-*Nelson, N. O., Agudelo, S. C., Yuan, W. and Gan, J. (2011) ‘Nitrogen and phosphorus availability in biochar-amended soils’, Soil Science, vol 176, pp218–226
-*Pietikäinen, J., Kiikkila, O. and Fritze, H. (2000) ‘Charcoal as a habitat for microbes and its effect on the microbial community of the underlying humus’, Oikos, vol 89, pp231–242
-*Quilliam, R. S., Marsden, K. A., Gertler, C., Rousk, J., DeLuca, T. H. and Jones, D. L. (2012) ‘Nutrient dynamics, microbial growth and weed emergence in biochar amended soil are influenced by time since application and reapplication rate’,  Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment, vol 158, pp192–199
-*Schultz, H. and Glaser, B. (2012) ‘Effects of biochar compared to organic and inorganic fertilizers on soil quality and plant growth in a greenhouse experiment’, Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol 175, pp410–422
-*Yoo, G. and Kang, H. (2010) ‘Effects of biochar addition on greenhouse gas emissions and microbial responses in a short-term laboratory experiment’, Journal of Environmental Quality, vol 41, pp1193–1202
-==Standards, classification, testing, and distributors==
+References containing specifications are provided below. Note that most of these references include information on the packaged material (e.g. bags, blocks, briquettes), such as weight and size.
-Because of the large number of potential feedstocks, production conditions (primarily temperature), and applications for biochar, biochar classification is an active area of research. The information in this section largely comes from the [https://biochar-international.org/ International Biochar Initiative], but some additional references include the following.
+*[http://www.coirexports-india.com/products/Product-Specification Coir Exports]
+*[http://coirpith.co.in/Coirpithproduct.html Coir pith]
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Arbestain et al.] (2015): A biochar classification system and associated test methods
+*[http://www.rudraexport.com/cocopeat.html Rudra]
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References  Klassen] (2017): Biochar characterization and a method for estimating biochar quality from proximate analysis results
+*[https://www.reiziger.com/reiziger-coco-coir-pith/specifications/ Reiziger]
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Leng et al.] (2019): Biochar stability assessment methods: A review
+*[https://www.coco-peat.com/info/cocopeat-specifications Williams Enterprises]
-*[https://biochar-us.org/go-deeper United States Biochar Initiative]
+*[http://coirboard.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Coir-Pith.pdf Ministry of MSME, Government of India]
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Budai et al.] (2013): Biochar Carbon Stability Test Method: An Assessment of methods to determine biochar carbon stability
-===Biochar standards===
-The Internation Biochar Initiative (IBI) developed Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil, also referred to The Biochar Standards. These standards provide guidelines and is not a formal set of industry specifications. The goal of The Biochar Standards is to "universally and consistently define what biochar is, and to confirm that a product intended for sale or use as biochar possesses the necessary characteristics for safe use. The IBI Biochar Standards also provide common reporting requirements for biochar that will aid researchers in their ongoing efforts to link specific functions of biochar to its beneficial soil and crop impacts." The IBI also provides a certification program. Information on the standards and certification are found on [https://biochar-international.org/characterizationstandard/ International Biochar Institute's website] or at the [https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final.pdf IBI's Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil].
-The IBI also provides [https://biochar-international.org/biochar-classification-tool/ a biochar classification tool]. Currently, four biochar properties are classified:
-*Carbon storage value
-*Fertilizer value (P, K, S, and Mg only)
-*Liming value
-*Particle size distribution
 ===Distributors===
-{{alert|The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency does not endorse specific distributors of biochar or biochar products|alert-warning}}
+Distributors of coir for use in bioretention media (e.g. horticultural use) can readily be found on the internet and we do not make specific recommendations. When purchasing coir, the following questions should be asked.
+*Were the husks loosened using fresh water or salt water?
-A list of biochar distributors is provided on the [https://biochar-us.org/manufacturers-retailers United States Biochar Initiative website (USBI)]. Note the USBI neither provides endorsements nor accepts liability for any particular product or technology listed.
+*If salt water was used, has the coir been desalinized (e.g. residual salt washed out)?
+*How was the coir dried (air or mechanical drying)?
+*If the material was compacted (e.g. bricks), does it meet specifications (see above)?
+*How long has the coir been left to mature (>6 months preferred)?
+*Does the coir meet specifications described above?
+*Has the coir been treated to prevent infestation?
+*Has the material been sieved to achieve desired particle size distribution?
 ===Test methods===
-There is no universally accepted standard for biochar testing. The Internation Biochar Initiative (IBI) developed [https://biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final1.pdf Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil]. The goals of this document are to provide "stakeholders and 5 commercial entities with standards to identify certain qualities and characteristics of biochar materials according to relevant, reliable, and measurable characteristics." The document provides information and test parameters and test nethods for three categories.
+Packaged coir is typically tested and meets specifications as described above. Standardized testing does not appear to exist for coir, but several methods for testing different characteristics appear to be appropriate.
-*Test Category A – Basic Utility Properties (required)
-*Test Category B – Toxicant Assessment (required)
-*Test Category C – Advanced Analysis and Soil Enhancement Properties
-The IBI document also provides information on sampling procedures, laboratory standards, timing and frequency of testing, feedstcok and production parameters, frequency of testing, reporting, and additional information for specific types of biochar. The document also [https://biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final1.pdf provides a discussion of H:C ratios], which are used to indicate the stability of a particular biochar.
+The following references provide information on testing of coir.
+*The [http://coirboard.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Coir-Pith.pdf Ministry of MSME, Government of India] (2016) provide a discussion of test methods for pH, moisture content, ash content, organic matter and organic carbon content, electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, phosphorus content, C:N ratio, and potassium content.
+*[https://www.coco-peat.com/info/testing-methods Williams Enterprises] provides test methods for electrical conductivity, pH, moisture content, fiber content, impurities (sand), expansion or breakout volume, and water retention
+*[http://www.evergreencoirs.com/testing.html Evergreen Coirs] provides test methods for electrical conductivity, pH, impurities (sand), expansion volume, moisture, and weed content
 ==Effects of aging==
-Biochar undergoes transformations in soil after application, primarily through oxidation processes, typically mediated by microbes. Several researchers have studied effects of aging on biochar properties. Although researchers observe similar changes in the chemical and physical structure of biochar with aging, observed effects vary. It is therefore difficult to draw general conclusions about likely changes in the effects of biochar aging on fate of pollutants and soil hydraulic properties.
+Coir has a high C:N ratio, ranging from 75 to 186, with a median of 115 (Abad et al., 2002; Abad et al., 2005; Shrestha et al., 2019; Meerow, 1997; Arenas et al., 2002). It also contains a high lignin content and therefore decomposes relatively slowly unless nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus, are added to the media (Amlan and Devi, 2001). Composting is recommended to increase nutrient availability, which in turn may increase the rate of decomposition. Similarly, liming or addition of specific microorganisms can enhance decomposition (Prabhu and Thomas, 2002). Even when decomposition is facilitated, the life expectancy of coir exceeds two years (Newman 2007).
-Below is a summary of some research findings.
+Prabhu and Thomas (2002) provide an extensive discussion of coir decomposition.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Mia et al.] (2019) observed an increase in carboxylic and phenolic groups, a reduction of oxonium groups and the transformation of pyridine to pyridone with oxidation. This led to increased adsorption of ammonium and reduced adsorption of phosphate. Addition of biochar derived organic matter improved phosphate retention.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Paetsch et al.] (2018) studied effects of fresh and aged biochar on water availability and microbial parameters of a grassland soil. They observed improved water retention and microbial function with aged biochar. This was attributed to increased soil mineralization in soils with aged biochar.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Paetsch et al.] (2018) observed increased C:N ratios as biochar aged.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Dong et al.] (2017) observed increased specific surface area, increased carbon content, smaller average pore size, but no change in chemical structure of aged biochar versus fresh biochar.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Quan et al]. (2020) and Spokas (2013) observed biologically-mediated changes in aged biochar. Mineralization resulted in decreased carbon content in aged biochar.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Hale et al.] (2012) determined that aged biochar retained its ability to adsorb PAHs.
-*[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Cao et al.] found that aged biochar had decreased carbon and nitrogen contents; reduced pH values, reduced porosity and specific surface area, and increased oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface. In general, the surface characteristics of the aged biochar varied with soil type.
 ==Storage, handling, and field application==
-The following guidelines for field application of biochar are presented by Major (2010).
+*Store in a cool dry place
-*Biochar dust particles can form explosive mixtures with air in confined spaces, and there is a danger of spontaneous heating and ignition when biochar is tightly packed. This occurs because fresh biochar quickly sorbs oxygen and moisture, and these sorption processes are exothermic, thus potentially leading to high temperature and ignition of the material.
+*Keep away from weedkillers and other garden chemicals
-*Volatile compounds present in certain biochar materials may also represent a fire hazard, but the amount of such compounds found in biochar can be managed by managing the pyrolysis temperature and heating rate. Certain chemicals can be added to biochar to decrease its flammability (e.g. boric acid, ferrous sulfate). The best way to prevent fire is to store and transport biochar in an atmosphere which excludes oxygen. Formulated biochar products such as mixtures with composts, manures, or the production of biochar-mineral complexes will potentially yield products which are much less flammable.
+*If material is containerized, reseal after use
-*For fine-grained biochars, wind losses can be significant (up to 30% loss has been reported). Biochar can be moistened, although this will add to the weight of the material and increase transportation costs. If wind loss is a concern, apply biochar when winds are mild and/or during a light rain. Pelleted biochars or mixing with other materials may reduce wind loss.
+*Recommended application rates are 10-15 tons per hectare.
-*To avoid water erosion, incorporate biochar into the soil.
-*Application rates vary depending on the biochar and the intended use of the biochar.
+There are few handling concerns. Dust may be an eye irritant. Examples of material and safety data sheets can be found at the following links.
-*Biochar is relatively stable and recalcitrant. In some cases, biochar may improve soil conditions with time. Consequently, biochar application frequency is likely to be on the order of years.
+*[https://www.burpee.com/on/demandware.static/-/Sites-BURPEE-Library/default/v1576217273669/Images/Content/PDF/MSDS/Burpee_ecofriendly_natural&organicGardenCoir.pdf Organic garden coir]
-*Biochar can be readily mixed with other materials, such as compost.
+*[http://www.synturf.org/images/pso110-m.pdf Coconut fiber]
-*The depth of biochar application varies with the intended purpose.
+*[https://www.amleo.com/images/art/PGH750-MSDS.pdf Fiber dust]
-**For fertility applications, locate biochar near the soil surface in the active rooting zone.
+*[http://www.globalhort.com/pdf/MSDS/growingMedium/Coco%20Products%20-%20Coco%20Agro.PDF Coco coir]
-**For moisture management, locate biochar throughout the root zone.
+*[http://www.ecofusion.net/datasheets/SDS%20-%20Coco%20Peat.pdf Coco peat]
-**For carbon sequestration, locate biochar deeper in the soil profile to reduce the likelihood of microbial mineralization.
-*For stormwater applications, biochar can be broadcast and then incorporated into the soil. If fertility is the primary objective, banding may be utilized.
-*For turf applications, biochar can be mixed with soil (sand and topsoil) and other amendments such as compost.
-*Application rates depend on the intended use of a biochar. Field testing is recommended prior to application. Typical rates reported in the literature are 5-50 tonnes of biochar per hectare.
 ==Sustainability==
-Because biochar is produced from biomass, including wastes, it is sustainable from an availability or supply standpoint. Sustainable biochar production, however, is less certain based on current economic constraints. Biochar has several potential markets and exploiting these markets is necessary for biochar production to be sustainable. Examples of specific markets include stormwater media, soil health and fertility, and carbon sequestration [Biogreen http://www.biogreen-energy.com/biochar-production/] (accessed December 10, 2019). Sustainable biochar production must also meet certain environmental and economic criteria, includign the following.
+Coir dust is a sustainable alternative to peat. Historically, little coir has been utilized and has therefore been disposed as a waste. Prabhu and Thomas (2002), for example, estimated that in India alone, 1.5 million tonnes of coir pith could be obtained annually but only 500,000 were produced at the time of their study. More recently coir production in India has been estimated at about 1 million tonnes annually (Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2016). Studies are underway to expand existing markets and develop technologies for manufacturing coir dust from coir fiber (Praveenkumar and Agamoorthi 2017; Varma, 2018).
-*Biochar systems should be, at a minimum, carbon and energy neutral.
-*Biochar systems should prioritize the use of biomass residuals for biochar production.
-*Biochar systems should be safe, clean, economical, efficient, and meet or exceed environmental standards and regulatory requirements of the regions where they are deployed.
-*Biochar systems should promote or enhance ecological conditions for biodiversity at the local and landscape level.
-*Biochar systems should not pollute or degrade water resources.
-*Biochar systems should not jeopardize food security by displacing or degrading land grown for food; and should seek to complement existing local agro-ecological practices.
-For more information, see the [https://biochar-international.org/sustainability-climate-change/ International Biochar Initiative discussion] on sustainable biochar production. For a discussion of biochar sustainability, see [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275770511_Biochar_Sustainability_and_Certification  sustainability and Certification] (Vereijen et al., 2015).
+==References==
+*Abad, M., P. Noguera, R. Puchades, A. Maquieira, V. Noguera. 2002. ''Physico-chemical and chemical properties of some coconut coir dusts for use as a peat substitute for containerized ornamental plants''. Bioresource Technology. 82:241-245.
+*Abad, M., F. Fornes, C. Carrion, V. Noguera, P. Noguera, A. Maquieira, R. Puchades. 2005. ''Physical Properties of Various Coconut Coir Dusts Compared to Peat''. Hort Sci. 40:7:2138-2144.
+*Alam, F. An Overview of Coconut or Coir Fiber. Accessed from https://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2014/01/properties-of-coconutcoir-fiber.html on 2/13/20.
+*Amlan, D., and L.S. Devi. 2001. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5518/efa1beb82f187062460c74f3951dfc5a17d7.pdf Effect of Organic and Inorganic Amendments on CO2 Evolution and Rate of Decomposition of Coir Dust]. Journal of Tropical Agriculture. 39:184-185.
+*Anand, H.S., D. L. Suseela, and H.R. Nagaraju. 2002. [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Chemical-and-biochemical-characterization-of-coir-Devi/f334def6bc1336c56200926fa0f2978bd083f07d Chemical and bio-chemical characterization of coir dust composts as influenced by pretreatment and enrichment]. 17th WCSS, 14-21 August, 2002, Thailand. Symposium 58, Paper 278. 6 p.
+*Arachchi, L.P.V., and L.L.W. Somasiri. 1997. [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/USE-OF-COIR-DUST-ON-THE-PRODUCTIVITY-OF-COCONUT-ON-Arachchi-Somasiri/5ffef20b58ccdfda4a8c3273bf4e5f5c62b91fc7 Use of Coir Dust on the Productivity of Coconut on Sandy Soils]. Cocos. 12:54-71.
+*Arenas, M., C.S. Vavrina, J.A. Cornell, E.A. Hanlon, G.J. Hochmuth. 2002. [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Coir-as-an-Alternative-to-Peat-in-Media-for-Tomato-Arenas-Vavrina/19380f37eb86e5e1957f1cc20e2d0270d7adca77 Coir as an Alternative to Peat in Media for Tomato Transplant Production]. Hort Sci. 37:2:309-312.
+*Asiah A., Mohd. Razi, I., Mohd, Khanif Y., Marziah M. & Shaharuddin M. 2004. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d8e6/64d378b1d38262f852bb7bc1b3fee2ec9729.pdf Physical and Chemical Properties of Coconut Coir Dust and Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch and the Growth of Hybrid Heat Tolerant Cauliflower Plant]. PertanikaJ. Trop. Agric. Sci. 27(2): 121 -133.
+*Cresswell, G. [http://www.cocopeat.com.au/technical/productAnalysis/pdf/Cresswelldoc.pdf Coir Dust a Proven Alternative to Peat]. p 1-5. In: Proceedings of the Australian Potting Mix Manufacturers Conference, Sydney.
+*Evans, M.R., S. Konduru, R.H. Stamps. 1996. Source Variation in Physical and Chemical Properties of Coconut Coir Dust. Hort Sci. 31:6:965-967.
+*Herrera Environmental Consultants. 2015. ''Analysis of Bioretention Soil Media for Improved Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Copper Retention – Final Report''. 340 p.
+*Hongpakdee, P., and S. Ruamrungsri. 2015. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273521809_Water_Use_Efficiency_Nutrient_Leaching_and_Growth_in_Potted_Marigolds_Affected_by_Coconut_Coir_Dust_Amended_in_Substrate_Media Water Use Efficiency, Nutrient Leaching, and Growth in Potted Marigolds Affected by Coconut Coir Dust Amended in Substrate Media]. Hort. Environ. Biotechnol. 56:1:27-35
+*Kumar, P., S. Chand, and V.C. Srivastava. 2010. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238136474_Phosphate_Removal_from_Aqueous_Solution_Using_Coir-Pith_Activated_Carbon Phosphate Removal from Aqueous Solution Using Coir-pith Activated Carbon]. Separation Science and Technology. 45:1-8.
+*Lodolini, E.M., F. Pica, F. Massetani, and D. Neri. 2017. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312384600_Physical_Chemical_and_Biological_Properties_of_some_Alternative_Growing_Substrates Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Some Alternative Growing Substances]. International Journal of Soil Science. 12:1:32-38.
+*Meerow, A. 1997. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239530350_Coir_Dust_A_Viable_Alternative_to_Peat_Moss Coir Dust, A Viable Alternative to Peat Moss].
+*Ministry of MSME, Government of India. 2016. [http://coirboard.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Coir-Pith.pdf Coir Pith, Wealth from Waste, a reference]. India International Coir Fair, July 15-18, 2016. 110p.
+*Namasivayam C., D.Sangeetha. 2004. ''Equilibrium and kinetic studies of adsorption of phosphate onto ZnCl2 activated coir pith carbon''. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science.  280:2:359-365
+*Newman, J. 2007. Core facts about coir. Nursey Management. https://www.nurserymag.com/article/core-facts-about-coir/ accessed 12/18/20.
+*Noguera, P., M. Abad, R. Puchades, A. Maquieira, and V. Noguera. 2003. ''Influence of Particle Size on Physical and Chemical Properties of Coconut Coir Dust as Container Medium''. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 34:3/4:593-605.
+*Prabhu, S.R., and G.V. Thomas. 2002. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272481596_Bioconversion_of_coir_pith_into_value_added_organic_resource_and_its_application_in_agri-horticulture_Current_status_prospects_and_perspective Biological conversion of coir pith into a value-added organic resource and its application in Agri-Horticulture: Current status, prospects and perspective]. Journal of Plantation Crops. 30:1:1-17.
+*Scagel, C.F. 2003. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43275179_Growth_and_Nutrient_Use_of_Ericaceous_Plants_Grown_in_Media_Amended_with_Sphagnum_Moss_Peat_or_Coir_Dust Growth and Nutrient Use of Ericaceous Plants Grown in Media Amedned with Sphagnum Moss Peat or Coir Dust]. Hort Sci. 38:1:46-54.
+*Shrestha, P., M. T. Salzl, I. J. Jimenez, N. Pradhan, M. Hay, H. R. Wallace, J. N. Abrahamson and G. E. Small. [https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/11/8/1575 Efficacy of Spent Lime as a Soil Amendment for Nutrient Retention in Bioretention Green Stormwater Infrastructure]. Water 2019, 11(8), 1575
+*Small, Gaston E , Wihlm, Spencer E , Wallace, Hannah R , Abrahamson, Jenna N , Deile, Madison P , Mahre, Erin K , Fischer, John PH , Jimenez, Ivan J , Shrestha, Paliza , Salzl, Michael T. ''Final Report: Soil Amendments for Enhanced Phosphorus Retention: Implications forGreen Infrastructure Design''. Accessed at https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.abstractDetail/abstract/10938/report/F on 2/13/20.
+*Takaijudin, H., and A.A. Ghani. 2014. The Impact of Stormwater Runoff on Nutrient Removal in Sand Columns. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 567. 155-160. 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.567.155.
+*Varma, M.S. 2018. NCRMI’s pith technology to boost coir exports. Financial Express. Accessed at https://www.financialexpress.com/market/commodities/ncrmis-pith-technology-to-boost-coir-exports/1310190/ on 12/18/20.
-==References==
+<noinclude>
+[[Category:Engineered media]]
+</noinclude>

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