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− | + | [[File:Technical information page image.png|thumb|left|100px|alt=image]] | |
+ | [[File:Biochar page navigation.mp4|thumb|left|200px|alt=link to video for navigating this page|<font size=3>3-minute video summarizing content and navigation for this page ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2aLTbA4uLG4 click here for subtitled version])</font size>]] | ||
+ | [[file:Check it out.png|200px|thumb|left|alt=check it out image|<font size=3>Check out this video on [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6HlJHAVT0sY using biochar to rebuild urban soils] or this video on [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXMUmby8PpU making biochar]</font size>]] | ||
− | This page provides information on biochar. While providing extensive information on biochar, there is a section focused specifically on stormwater applications for biochar. | + | <div style="float:right"> |
+ | <table class="infobox" style="border:3px; border-style:solid; border-color:#FF0000; text-align: left; width: 300px; font-size: 100%"> | ||
+ | <tr> | ||
+ | <th><center><font size=3>'''Page summary - biochar'''</font size></center></th> | ||
+ | </tr> | ||
+ | <tr> | ||
+ | <td>'''Biochar is a charcoal-like substance that’s made by burning organic material such as crop residues; yard, food and forestry wastes; and animal manures. Beneficial properties of biochar include the following.''' | ||
+ | *enhancing soil structure and soil aggregation; | ||
+ | *increasing water retention; | ||
+ | *decreasing acidity; | ||
+ | *reducing nitrous oxide emissions; | ||
+ | *improving porosity; | ||
+ | *regulating nitrogen leaching; | ||
+ | *improving electrical conductivity; and | ||
+ | *improving microbial properties. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Regarding water quality, additional research is needed, but generally: | ||
+ | *biochar does not appear to retain phosphorus; | ||
+ | *biochar does not leach phosphorus; | ||
+ | *biochar appears to be effective at retaining bacteria, particularly fine-grained biochars; | ||
+ | *biochar is effective at retaining nitrogen; | ||
+ | *biochar is effective at retaining metals; and | ||
+ | *biochar is effective at retaining many organics. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Biochar is also found to be beneficial for composting. | ||
+ | </td> | ||
+ | </tr> | ||
+ | </table> | ||
+ | </div> | ||
+ | |||
+ | This page provides information on biochar. While providing extensive information on biochar, there is [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#Applications_for_biochar_in_stormwater_management a section focused specifically on stormwater applications for biochar]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | <font size=5>[[Engineered (bioretention) media organic material properties and specifications|'''Link to a table comparing properties of different organic materials''']]</font size> | ||
==Overview and description== | ==Overview and description== | ||
[[File:Biochar structures.jpg|300px|thumb|alt=biochar image|<font size=3>Image source: [https://www.istc.illinois.edu/research/waste_utilization/biochar Illinois Sustainable Technology Center]</font size>]] | [[File:Biochar structures.jpg|300px|thumb|alt=biochar image|<font size=3>Image source: [https://www.istc.illinois.edu/research/waste_utilization/biochar Illinois Sustainable Technology Center]</font size>]] | ||
− | |||
Biochar is a charcoal-like substance that’s made by burning <span title="carbon-based compounds, originally derived from living organisms"> '''organic material'''</span> from <span title="organic matter used as a fuel"> '''biomass'''</span>. The two most common proceesses for producing biochar are pyrolysis and gasification. During pyrolysis, the organic material is heated to 250-800<sup>o</sup>C in a limited oxygen environment. Gasification involves temperatures greater than 700<sup>o</sup>C in the presence of oxygen. | Biochar is a charcoal-like substance that’s made by burning <span title="carbon-based compounds, originally derived from living organisms"> '''organic material'''</span> from <span title="organic matter used as a fuel"> '''biomass'''</span>. The two most common proceesses for producing biochar are pyrolysis and gasification. During pyrolysis, the organic material is heated to 250-800<sup>o</sup>C in a limited oxygen environment. Gasification involves temperatures greater than 700<sup>o</sup>C in the presence of oxygen. | ||
− | Biomass waste materials appropriate for biochar production include crop residues (both field residues and processing residues such as nut shells, fruit pits, bagasse, etc); yard, food and forestry wastes; and animal manures. Clean <span title="a raw material used to provide energy"> '''feedstocks'''</span> with 10 to 20 percent moisture and high <span title="a complex organic polymer deposited in the cell walls of many plants, making them rigid and woody"> '''lignin'''</span> content are recommended. Examples are field residues and woody biomass. Using contaminated feedstocks, including feedstocks from railway embankments or contaminated land, can introduce toxins into the soil, drastically increase soil pH and/or inhibit plants from absorbing minerals. The most common contaminants are heavy metals—including cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, mercury, nickel and arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). | + | Biomass waste materials appropriate for biochar production include crop residues (both field residues and processing residues such as nut shells, fruit pits, bagasse, etc); yard, food and forestry wastes; and animal manures. Clean <span title="a raw material used to provide energy"> '''feedstocks'''</span> with 10 to 20 percent moisture and high <span title="a complex organic polymer deposited in the cell walls of many plants, making them rigid and woody"> '''lignin'''</span> content are recommended. Examples are field residues and woody biomass. Using contaminated feedstocks, including feedstocks from railway embankments or contaminated land, can introduce toxins into the soil, drastically increase soil pH and/or inhibit plants from absorbing minerals. The most common contaminants are heavy metals—including cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, mercury, nickel and arsenic, and <span title="A class of chemicals that occur naturally in coal, crude oil, and gasoline. They also are produced when coal, oil, gas, wood, garbage, and tobacco are burned."> '''polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons'''</span> (PAHs). |
Biochar is black, highly porous, lightweight, fine-grained and has a large surface area. Approximately 70 percent of its composition is carbon. The remaining percentage consists of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen among other elements. Biochar’s chemical composition varies depending on the feedstocks used to make it and methods used to heat it. | Biochar is black, highly porous, lightweight, fine-grained and has a large surface area. Approximately 70 percent of its composition is carbon. The remaining percentage consists of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen among other elements. Biochar’s chemical composition varies depending on the feedstocks used to make it and methods used to heat it. | ||
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*improving microbial properties. | *improving microbial properties. | ||
− | Biochar is also found to be beneficial for composting, since it reduces greenhouse gas emissions and prevents the loss of nutrients in the compost material. It also promotes microbial activity, which in turn accelerates the composting process. Plus, it helps reduce the compost’s ammonia losses, bulk density and odor (Spears, 2018; Hoffman-Krull, 2019). | + | Biochar is also found to be beneficial for composting, since it reduces greenhouse gas emissions and prevents the loss of nutrients in the compost material. It also promotes microbial activity, which in turn accelerates the composting process. Plus, it helps reduce the compost’s ammonia losses, bulk density and odor ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Spears, 2018; Hoffman-Krull, 2019]). |
==Applications for biochar in stormwater management== | ==Applications for biochar in stormwater management== | ||
− | Biochar has several potential applications for stormwater management | + | Biochar has several potential applications for stormwater management. |
− | *Biochar increases water holding capacity of soil, improves aggregation in fine-textured soils, increases saturated hydraulic conductivity in fine- and medium-textured soils, and decreases hydraulic conductivity in very coarse-textured soils. | + | *Biochar increases <span title="The ability of a certain soil texture to physically hold water against the force of gravity"> '''water holding capacity'''</span> of soil, improves <span title="Soil aggregates are groups of soil particles that bind to each other more strongly than to adjacent particles. The space between the aggregates provide pore space for retention and exchange of air and water."> '''aggregation'''</span> in fine-textured soils, increases saturated <span title="Hydraulic conductivity is a property of soils and rocks that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move through pore spaces or fractures."> '''hydraulic conductivity (k)'''</span> in fine- and medium-textured soils, and decreases hydraulic conductivity in very coarse-textured soils. |
− | * | + | *Improves the fertility of nutrient-poor soils. In nutrient-poor soils, biochar appears to consistently improve <span title="The movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of matter. Examples include the nutrient, phosphorus, and carbon cycles."> '''nutrient cycling'''</span> and availability for plants. Results for other soils are mixed and depend on the biochar and soil characteristics. |
*Biochar generally improves retention of metals and PAHs. | *Biochar generally improves retention of metals and PAHs. | ||
*Results for bacteria and pathogens are mixed, but some studies indicate increased retention, primarily associated with straining resulting from increased surface area and micropore structure in biochar-amended soils. | *Results for bacteria and pathogens are mixed, but some studies indicate increased retention, primarily associated with straining resulting from increased surface area and micropore structure in biochar-amended soils. | ||
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#'''Engineered media'''. Biochar incorporated into engineered media can increase water retention and infiltration. Low-nutrient biochars (e.g. wood-based versus manure- or sludge-based) produced at relatively low temperatures (less than 600<sup>o</sup>C) can improve phosphorus retention. Biochar may enhance nutrient cycling and improve fertility in media with relatively low nutrient concentrations (e.g. media mixes having lower fractions of compost). | #'''Engineered media'''. Biochar incorporated into engineered media can increase water retention and infiltration. Low-nutrient biochars (e.g. wood-based versus manure- or sludge-based) produced at relatively low temperatures (less than 600<sup>o</sup>C) can improve phosphorus retention. Biochar may enhance nutrient cycling and improve fertility in media with relatively low nutrient concentrations (e.g. media mixes having lower fractions of compost). | ||
#'''Contaminant hotspots'''. Biochar can be incorporated into treatment practices in areas with high or potentially high concentrations of metals and organic pollutants. | #'''Contaminant hotspots'''. Biochar can be incorporated into treatment practices in areas with high or potentially high concentrations of metals and organic pollutants. | ||
− | #'''Turf amendment/soil compaction'''. Biochar can added to turf or compacted media to improve hydraulic performance and nutrient cycling. | + | #'''Turf amendment/soil compaction'''. Biochar can be added to turf or compacted media to improve hydraulic performance and nutrient cycling. |
#'''Filtration practices'''. Biochar can be used alone or mixed with other components for stormwater filtration applications, including but not limited to the following: | #'''Filtration practices'''. Biochar can be used alone or mixed with other components for stormwater filtration applications, including but not limited to the following: | ||
− | ##Filtration media in new treatment systems, especially roof downspout units and aboveground vaults; | + | ##<span title="Filtration Best Management Practices (BMPs) treat urban stormwater runoff as it flows through a filtering medium, such as sand or an organic material. They are generally used on small drainage areas (5 acres or less) and are primarily designed for pollutant removal. They are effective at removing total suspended solids (TSS), particulate phosphorus, metals, and most organics. They are less effective for soluble pollutants such as dissolved phosphorus, chloride, and nitrate."> [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Filtration '''filtration''']</span> media in new treatment systems, especially roof downspout units and aboveground vaults; |
− | ##Supplemental or replacement media in existing treatment systems such as sand filters; | + | ##Supplemental or replacement media in existing treatment systems such as <span title="Filtration of stormwater through a sand filtering material whose purpose is to remove pollution from runoff"> '''[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Filtration sand filters]'''</span>; |
##Direct media addition to a stormwater storage vault ; | ##Direct media addition to a stormwater storage vault ; | ||
− | ##Direct application in bioretention or swale systems; | + | ##Direct application in <span title="Bioretention is a terrestrial-based (up-land as opposed to wetland) water quality and water quantity control process. Bioretention employs a simplistic, site-integrated design that provides opportunity for runoff infiltration, filtration, storage, and water uptake by vegetation. Bioretention areas are suitable stormwater treatment practices for all land uses, as long as the contributing drainage area is appropriate for the size of the facility. Common bioretention opportunities include landscaping islands, cul-de-sacs, parking lot margins, commercial setbacks, open space, rooftop drainage and street-scapes (i.e., between the curb and sidewalk). Bioretention, when designed with an underdrain and liner, is also a good design option for treating Potential stormwater hotspots. Bioretention is extremely versatile because of its ability to be incorporated into landscaped areas. The versatility of the practice also allows for bioretention areas to be frequently employed as stormwater retrofits."> '''bioretention'''</span> or <span title="Are configured as shallow, linear channels. They typically have vegetative cover such as turf or native perennial grasses"> [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Dry_swale_(Grass_swale) '''swale''']</span> systems; |
##Filtration socks and slings; | ##Filtration socks and slings; | ||
##Hanging filters in catch basins. | ##Hanging filters in catch basins. | ||
#'''Underground infiltration basins and trenches'''. Many underground infiltration practices are constructed in very coarse textured soils that may have limited ability to retain pollutants. Biochar can reduce infiltration rates and adsorb pollutants in these systems. | #'''Underground infiltration basins and trenches'''. Many underground infiltration practices are constructed in very coarse textured soils that may have limited ability to retain pollutants. Biochar can reduce infiltration rates and adsorb pollutants in these systems. | ||
− | #'''Climate-related effects'''. While not specifically a stormwater objective, biochar incorporated into stormwater practices can sequester carbon and reduce nitrous oxide emissions. | + | #'''Climate-related effects'''. While not specifically a stormwater objective, biochar incorporated into stormwater practices can <span title="to remove or withdraw"> '''sequester'''</span> carbon and reduce nitrous oxide emissions. |
{{:Potential biochar stormwater applications}} | {{:Potential biochar stormwater applications}} | ||
− | + | Recommended reading | |
− | * | + | *Emerging Best Management Practices in Stormwater: Biochar as Filtration Media - Pacific Northwest Pollution Prevention Resource Center |
− | *[ | + | *[https://www.deeproot.com/blog/blog-entries/improving-stormwater-control-measure-performance-with-biochar Improving Stormwater Control Measure Performance with Biochar] - Deeproot |
*[http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/IDEA/FinalReports/Highway/NCHRP182_Final_Report.pdf Reducing Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loading with Biochar Addition to Highway Greenways] - Final Report for NCHRP IDEA Project 182 | *[http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/IDEA/FinalReports/Highway/NCHRP182_Final_Report.pdf Reducing Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loading with Biochar Addition to Highway Greenways] - Final Report for NCHRP IDEA Project 182 | ||
− | *Mohanty et al. (2018) | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Mohanty et al.] (2018) |
==Effects of feedstock and production temperature== | ==Effects of feedstock and production temperature== | ||
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===Effect of feedstock (source material)=== | ===Effect of feedstock (source material)=== | ||
Since a wide variety of organic material can be used to produce biochar, it is not feasible to discuss each material separately. We provide the following general conclusions. Literature used to develop these conclusions is provided at the end of this section. | Since a wide variety of organic material can be used to produce biochar, it is not feasible to discuss each material separately. We provide the following general conclusions. Literature used to develop these conclusions is provided at the end of this section. | ||
− | *Compared to wood derived biochar, non-wood feedstock such as grass, sludge, and manure yields biochar with fewer aromatic but more aliphatic groups and higher ash content. Greater concentrations of aliphatic compounds are associated with more reactive biochar. | + | *Compared to wood derived biochar, non-wood feedstock such as grass, sludge, and manure yields biochar with fewer <span title="A property of cyclic (ring-shaped), typically planar chemical compounds that gives increased stability compared to other geometric or connective arrangements with the same set of atoms."> '''aromatic'''</span> but more <span title="A compound containing carbon and hydrogen joined together in straight chains, branched trains or non-aromatic rings."> '''aliphatic'''</span> groups and higher ash content. Greater concentrations of aliphatic compounds are associated with more reactive biochar. |
*Manure- and sludge-based biochar contains higher concentration of nutrients than wood-based biochar and are therefore more likely to be a source of nutrient leaching. | *Manure- and sludge-based biochar contains higher concentration of nutrients than wood-based biochar and are therefore more likely to be a source of nutrient leaching. | ||
*Manure- and sludge-based biochar attenuate metals more than wood based biochars | *Manure- and sludge-based biochar attenuate metals more than wood based biochars | ||
*Biochar parameters most affected by feedstock properties are total organic carbon, fixed carbon, and mineral elements of biochar. Feedstocks such as sawdust, wheat straw, and peanut shell have higher carbon concentrations than feedstocks such as manure, sludges, and waste paper. | *Biochar parameters most affected by feedstock properties are total organic carbon, fixed carbon, and mineral elements of biochar. Feedstocks such as sawdust, wheat straw, and peanut shell have higher carbon concentrations than feedstocks such as manure, sludges, and waste paper. | ||
*Capacity for carbon sequestration is primarily affected by feedstock, with higher carbon compounds having greater sequestration capacity. | *Capacity for carbon sequestration is primarily affected by feedstock, with higher carbon compounds having greater sequestration capacity. | ||
− | *High ash biochars, such as manures and coffee husk, exhibit higher cation exchange capacity, which may increase nutrient capture, although high initial nutrient concentrations may offset this and even contribute to nutrient loss. | + | *High ash biochars, such as manures and coffee husk, exhibit higher <span title="A measure of how many cations can be retained on soil particle surfaces"> '''cation exchange capacity'''</span>, which may increase nutrient capture, although high initial nutrient concentrations may offset this and even contribute to nutrient loss. |
− | The [https://biochar-international.org/ | + | The [https://biochar-international.org/ International Biochar Initiative (see Appendix 6)] provides a classification system for biochar feedstocks, shown below. |
*Unprocessed Feedstock Types | *Unprocessed Feedstock Types | ||
**Rice hulls & straw | **Rice hulls & straw | ||
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'''Literature''' | '''Literature''' | ||
− | *Zhaoa et al. (2013) examined cow manure, pig manure, shrimp hull, bone dregs, wastewater sludge, waste paper, sawdust, grass, wheat straw, peanut shell, Chlorella, and water weeds | + | *[https://people.clas.ufl.edu/azimmer/files/Publication-pdf/Zhao-Zimmerman-13_Heterogeneity-of-biochar-properties-as-a-function-of-feedstock-sources-and-prod-temp.pdf Zhaoa et al.] (2013) examined cow manure, pig manure, shrimp hull, bone dregs, wastewater sludge, waste paper, sawdust, grass, wheat straw, peanut shell, Chlorella, and water weeds |
− | * | + | *[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/efa3/11cb4ec367d4992fdc5a9be550bf67b20328.pdf?_ga=2.106287296.211059343.1634858948-2126831147.1634323415 Domingues et al.], (2017) examined wood-based biochars (eucalyptus sawdust, pine bark), sugarcane bagasse, chicken manure, and coffee husk |
− | *Jindo et al. (2014) examined rice husk, rice straw, apple tree wood chips, and oak tree wood chips | + | *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307656278_Physical_and_chemical_characterizations_of_biochars_derived_from_different_agricultural_residues Jindo et al.] (2014) examined rice husk, rice straw, apple tree wood chips, and oak tree wood chips |
*Mohanty et al. (2018) provide an extensive discussion and literature review of different feedstocks and associated biochar properties | *Mohanty et al. (2018) provide an extensive discussion and literature review of different feedstocks and associated biochar properties | ||
− | *Gai et al. (2014) studied twelve biochars produced from wheat straw, corn straw, and peanut shell | + | *[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0113888 Gai et al.] (2014) studied twelve biochars produced from wheat straw, corn straw, and peanut shell |
*[https://biochar-international.org/biochar-feedstocks/ International Biochar Initiative] provide a general discussion of feedstocks | *[https://biochar-international.org/biochar-feedstocks/ International Biochar Initiative] provide a general discussion of feedstocks | ||
− | *Conz et al. (2017) studied poultry litter, sugarcane straw, rice hull and sawdust | + | *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319468119_Effect_of_Pyrolysis_Temperature_and_Feedstock_Type_on_Agricultural_Properties_and_Stability_of_Biochars Conz et al.] (2017) studied poultry litter, sugarcane straw, rice hull and sawdust |
*[https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/W829.pdf Jahromi and Fulcher] studied biosolids and green waste, corn straw and rice straw, gasifed rice hulls, hardwood, pelleted agricultural or forestry residues, switchgrass, and timber harvest residues | *[https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/W829.pdf Jahromi and Fulcher] studied biosolids and green waste, corn straw and rice straw, gasifed rice hulls, hardwood, pelleted agricultural or forestry residues, switchgrass, and timber harvest residues | ||
− | *Zhao et ( | + | *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326981698_Effect_of_Temperature_on_the_Structural_and_Physicochemical_Properties_of_Biochar_with_Apple_Tree_Branches_as_Feedstock_Material Zhao et al.] (2017) studied sewage sludge, agriculture biomass waste, and wood biomass waste |
===Effect of production temperature=== | ===Effect of production temperature=== | ||
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The following information comes from a literature review of the effects of production temperature on biochar | The following information comes from a literature review of the effects of production temperature on biochar | ||
*Biochar yield and contents of N, hydrogen and oxygen decrease as pyrolysis temperature increases from 400˚C to 700˚C | *Biochar yield and contents of N, hydrogen and oxygen decrease as pyrolysis temperature increases from 400˚C to 700˚C | ||
− | *pH and contents of ash and carbon increase with greater pyrolysis temperature | + | *pH and contents of ash and carbon increase with greater pyrolysis temperature |
− | *Particle size and porosity increase with greater pyrolysis temperature | + | *Particle size and porosity increase with greater pyrolysis temperature |
− | *Hydrophobicity increases with greater pyrolysis temperature | + | *Hydrophobicity increases with greater pyrolysis temperature |
− | '''Literature''' | + | [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References '''Literature'''] |
*Mohanty et al., (2018) | *Mohanty et al., (2018) | ||
− | *Zhaoa et al., ( | + | *[https://people.clas.ufl.edu/azimmer/files/Publication-pdf/Zhao-Zimmerman-13_Heterogeneity-of-biochar-properties-as-a-function-of-feedstock-sources-and-prod-temp.pdf Zhaoa et al.] (2013) |
+ | *[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/efa3/11cb4ec367d4992fdc5a9be550bf67b20328.pdf?_ga=2.106287296.211059343.1634858948-2126831147.1634323415 Domingues et al.], (2017) | ||
*Klasson, (2017) | *Klasson, (2017) | ||
− | *Zhao et al., (2017) | + | *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334303738_Comparison_of_biochars_derived_from_different_types_of_feedstock_and_their_potential_for_heavy_metal_removal_in_multiple-metal_solutions Zhao et al.], (2017) |
− | *Jindo et al. | + | *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307656278_Physical_and_chemical_characterizations_of_biochars_derived_from_different_agricultural_residues Jindo et al.] (2014) |
*Wang et al., (2018) | *Wang et al., (2018) | ||
− | |||
*Lyu et al. (2016) | *Lyu et al. (2016) | ||
− | *Gai et al. | + | *[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0113888 Gai et al.] (2014) |
− | *Conz et al. (2017) | + | *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319468119_Effect_of_Pyrolysis_Temperature_and_Feedstock_Type_on_Agricultural_Properties_and_Stability_of_Biochars Conz et al.] (2017) |
==Properties of biochar== | ==Properties of biochar== | ||
− | This section includes a discussion of chemical and physical properties of biochar, and potential contaminants in biochar | + | This section includes a discussion of chemical and physical properties of biochar, and potential contaminants in biochar. |
===Chemical-physical properties of biochar=== | ===Chemical-physical properties of biochar=== | ||
The properties of biochar vary depending on the feedstock and production temperature, as discussed above. Consequently there is considerable variability in the chemical and physical properties of different biochars. The table below summarizes data from our literature review. Some conclusions from the literature are summarized below. | The properties of biochar vary depending on the feedstock and production temperature, as discussed above. Consequently there is considerable variability in the chemical and physical properties of different biochars. The table below summarizes data from our literature review. Some conclusions from the literature are summarized below. | ||
− | * | + | *Biochar has a large surface area. |
− | * | + | *Cation exchange capacity (CEC) decreases as pyrolysis temperature increases. This is due to the loss of volatile organic content and associated functional groups as temperature increases. As CEC decreases, the ability of biochar to retain negatively charged chemicals, such as phosphate, decreases. |
− | * | + | *Non-wood vegetative feedstocks have a greater CEC than wood feedstocks. This is due to a greater percentage of aliphatic compounds and associated functional groups. Non-wood feedstocks primarily consist of grasses. |
− | * | + | *Sludges and manure-based biochars have high nutrient content and are thus not satisfactory for managing stormwater. |
{{:Chemical and physical properties of biochar}} | {{:Chemical and physical properties of biochar}} | ||
===Potential contaminants in biochar=== | ===Potential contaminants in biochar=== | ||
− | Potential contaminants associated with biochar are a function of the source material and production temperature. Of greatest concern are metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Oleszcuk et al. (2013) examined metal and PAH concentrations in four biochars (elephant grass, coconut shell, wicker, and wheat straw). Metal concentrations (mg/kg) in the biochars are summarized below. Tier 1 Soil Reference Values (SRVs) are included in parentheses. | + | Potential contaminants associated with biochar are a function of the source material and production temperature. Of greatest concern are metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Oleszcuk et al.] (2013) examined metal and PAH concentrations in four biochars (elephant grass, coconut shell, wicker, and wheat straw). Metal concentrations (mg/kg) in the biochars are summarized below. Tier 1 <span title="SRVs are numerical values representing the amount of a chemical in soil that is safe for people who use a site. These values are determined using calculations provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).> '''[https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/c-r1-12.pdf Soil Reference Values (SRVs)]''' are included in parentheses (Tier 1 values correspond with no restrictions on use of the soil). |
− | * | + | *Cadmium: 0.04-0.87 (25) |
− | * | + | *Copper: nd-3.81 (100) |
− | * | + | *Nickel: nd-9.95 (560) |
− | * | + | *Lead: 20.6-23.7 (300) |
− | * | + | *Zinc: 30.2-102.0 (8700) |
− | *Cr: nd-18.0 (44,000 for CrIII; 87 for CrVI) | + | *Chromium (Cr): nd-18.0 (44,000 for CrIII; 87 for CrVI) |
Concentrations in biochar are well below Tier 1 SRVs. | Concentrations in biochar are well below Tier 1 SRVs. | ||
− | In the study by Oleszcuk et al. (2013), total PAHs ranged from | + | In the study by [https://www.academia.edu/22488554/Biochar_properties_regarding_to_contaminants_content_and_ecotoxicological_assessment Oleszcuk et al.] (2013), total PAHs ranged from 1,124.2 ng/g to 28,339.1 ng/g (ppb). The dominant group of PAHs were 3-ring compounds which comprised 64.6% to 82.6% of total PAHs content. The primary compounds included, in order of abundance, phenanthrene, fluorene, anthracene, and pyrene. No 6-ring PAHs were observed. Concentrations of PAHs and other organic contaminants, such as dioxins, decreases with increasing pyrolysis temperature (Lyu et al., 2016). |
− | In general, biochars mixed with soil do not inhibit germination or root growth. Biochar may enhance soil fertility by providing nutrients or more commonly by slowing the release of nutrients from materials such as compost | + | In general, biochars mixed with soil do not inhibit germination or root growth. Biochar may enhance soil fertility by providing nutrients or more commonly by slowing the release of nutrients from materials such as compost. Toxic effects have been observed for some invertebrates, indicating that in sensitive environments, biochar testing is advisable (Oleszcuk et al., 2013; Mumme et al., 2018; [https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/8/1706/htm Flesch et al.], 2019; Wang et al., 2017) . |
==Effects of biochar on physical and chemical properties of soil and bioretention media== | ==Effects of biochar on physical and chemical properties of soil and bioretention media== | ||
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===Effect of biochar on retention and fate of phosphorus=== | ===Effect of biochar on retention and fate of phosphorus=== | ||
<div style="float:right"> | <div style="float:right"> | ||
− | <table class="infobox" style="border:3px; border-style:solid; border-color:#FF0000; text-align: | + | <table class="infobox" style="border:3px; border-style:solid; border-color:#FF0000; text-align: center; width: 300px; font-size: 100%"> |
<tr> | <tr> | ||
<td>'''Biochar is not likely to provide significant phosphorus retention in bioretention practices unless impregnated with cations (e.g. magnesium) during production at relatively low temperatures (e.g. less than 600<sup>o</sup>C.)''' | <td>'''Biochar is not likely to provide significant phosphorus retention in bioretention practices unless impregnated with cations (e.g. magnesium) during production at relatively low temperatures (e.g. less than 600<sup>o</sup>C.)''' | ||
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</div> | </div> | ||
− | Biochar may have several properties for managing stormwater, such as increased water and pollutant retention, improving soil physical properties, and attenuating bacteria and pathogens. Biochar has been examined as a potential amendment to engineered media in bioretention or other stormwater control practices. With respect to phosphorus, information from the literature is mixed. Below are summaries from several studies. | + | Biochar may have several properties for managing stormwater, such as increased water and pollutant retention, improving soil physical properties, and attenuating bacteria and pathogens. Biochar has been examined as a potential amendment to <span title="Engineered media is a mixture of sand, fines (silt, clay), and organic matter utilized in stormwater practices, most frequently in bioretention practices. The media is typically designed to have a rapid infiltration rate, attenuate pollutants, and allow for plant growth."> [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Design_criteria_for_bioretention#Materials_specifications_-_filter_media '''engineered media''']</span> in bioretention or other stormwater control practices. With respect to phosphorus, information from the literature is mixed. Below are summaries from several studies. |
− | *Mohanty et al. (2018) observed that biochar does not absorb phosphate efficiently. Phosphorus retention can be enhanced by impregnating biochar with cations such as magnesium and zinc. | + | *[https://wrc.umn.edu/biofiltration-media-opt-phase2 Erickson et al.] observed phosphorus release from media that included 15% biochar and 20% leaf compost. This research is continuing and initial results suggest phosphorus release also occurs with 10% compost. |
− | *Reddy et al. (2014) found that biochar reduced influent phosphate concentrations by 47% in column experiments. Influent concentrations were 0.57 and 0.82 mg/L for unwashed and washed biochar, respectively. These concentrations are on the high end of concentrations found in urban stormwater. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Mohanty et al.] (2018) observed that biochar does not absorb phosphate efficiently. Phosphorus retention can be enhanced by impregnating biochar with cations such as magnesium and zinc. |
− | *Yaoa et al. (2011) observed retention in biochar-(sugar beet source)amended soils that were fertilized. Adsorption was dominated by magnesium oxides and maximum adsorption occurred at pH values less than 4. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Reddy et al.] (2014) found that biochar reduced influent phosphate concentrations by 47% in column experiments. Influent concentrations were 0.57 and 0.82 mg/L for unwashed and washed biochar, respectively. These concentrations are on the high end of concentrations found in urban stormwater. |
− | *Zhaoa et al. (2013) studied different feedstocks and observed high phosphorus concentrations in animal-based feedstocks and wastewater sludge (0.065 - 0.44%) compared to other feedstocks (0.007 - 0.07%) | + | *[https://people.clas.ufl.edu/azimmer/files/Publication-pdf/Yao11_Removal-of-phosphate-from-aqueous-solution-by-biochar-derived-from.pdf Yaoa et al.] (2011) observed retention in biochar-(sugar beet source)amended soils that were fertilized. Adsorption was dominated by magnesium oxides and maximum adsorption occurred at pH values less than 4. |
− | *Iqbal et al. (2015) examined leaching of phosphorus from compost (80% yard and 20% food waste) and co-composted biochar (100% fir-forest slash). They found biochar amendments did not significantly reduce the leaching of phosphorus compared to the compost only treatment. Phosphorus leached from biochar, but because phosphorus concentrations in biochar are low, this leaching contributed little total phosphorus. Leached phosphorus was primarily in the form of orthphosphate. | + | *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326981698_Effect_of_Temperature_on_the_Structural_and_Physicochemical_Properties_of_Biochar_with_Apple_Tree_Branches_as_Feedstock_Material Zhaoa et al.] (2013) studied different feedstocks and observed high phosphorus concentrations in animal-based feedstocks and wastewater sludge (0.065 - 0.44%) compared to other feedstocks (0.007 - 0.07%) |
− | *Han et al. (2018) found that addition of biochar to soil led to increased desorption of phosphorus during winter freeze-thaw cycles. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Iqbal et al.] (2015) examined <span title="A soluble chemical drained away from soil, ash, or similar material by the action of percolating liquid, especially rainwater"> '''leaching'''</span> of phosphorus from compost (80% yard and 20% food waste) and co-composted biochar (100% fir-forest slash). They found biochar amendments did not significantly reduce the leaching of phosphorus compared to the compost only treatment. Phosphorus leached from biochar, but because phosphorus concentrations in biochar are low, this leaching contributed little total phosphorus. Leached phosphorus was primarily in the form of orthphosphate. |
− | *Soinne et al. (2014) observed no effect of biochar on phosphorus retention in a sandy and two clay soils. | + | *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325164478_Adsorption_and_Desorption_of_Phosphorus_in_Biochar-Amended_Black_Soil_as_Affected_by_Freeze-Thaw_Cycles_in_Northeast_China Han et al.] (2018) found that addition of biochar to soil led to increased desorption of phosphorus during winter freeze-thaw cycles. |
+ | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Soinne et al.] (2014) observed no effect of biochar on phosphorus retention in a sandy and two clay soils. | ||
===Effect of biochar on retention and fate of other pollutants=== | ===Effect of biochar on retention and fate of other pollutants=== | ||
− | *'''Nitrogen'''. Biochar effects on nitrogen retention depend on the properties of the biochar and stormwater runoff. Biochars produced at relatively low temperatures (less than 600<sup>o</sup>C) provide some retention of organic nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen in stormwater runoff. Mechanisms for nitrogen retention include adsorption of ammounium and nitrogen immobilization. Leaching of nitrogen may decrease due to increased water holding capacity (Iqbal et al., 2015; Gai et al., 2014; Zheng et al., 2013; Ding et al., 2010). | + | *'''Nitrogen'''. Biochar effects on nitrogen retention depend on the properties of the biochar and stormwater runoff. Biochars produced at relatively low temperatures (less than 600<sup>o</sup>C) provide some retention of organic nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen in stormwater runoff. Mechanisms for nitrogen retention include adsorption of ammounium and nitrogen immobilization. Leaching of nitrogen may decrease due to increased water holding capacity ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Iqbal et al., 2015; Gai et al., 2014; Zheng et al., 2013; Ding et al., 2010]). |
− | *'''Metals'''. Biochar | + | *'''Metals'''. Biochar enhances retention of metals in stormwater runoff. ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Reddy et al., 2014; Domingues et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2015]) |
− | *'''Organics'''. Biochar significantly retains polynuclear aromatic hydrocrabons in stormwater runoff (Reddy et al., 2014; Domingues et al., 2017; Ulrich et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2015) | + | *'''Organics'''. Biochar significantly retains polynuclear aromatic hydrocrabons in stormwater runoff ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Reddy et al., 2014; Domingues et al., 2017; Ulrich et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2015]) |
− | *'''Bacteria and viruses'''. Biochar effects on bacteria and virus retention are a function of the particle size of the biochar. Fine-grained biochars enhance removal of bacteria in stormwater runoff through straining of microorganisms (Reddy et al., 2014; Sasidharan et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2019). | + | *'''Bacteria and viruses'''. Biochar effects on bacteria and virus retention are a function of the particle size of the biochar. Fine-grained biochars enhance removal of bacteria in stormwater runoff through straining of microorganisms ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Reddy et al., 2014; Sasidharan et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2019]). |
− | *'''Dissolved organic carbon'''. Biochar shows limited retention of dissolved carbon in stormwater runoff (Iqbal et al., 2015). | + | *'''Dissolved organic carbon'''. Biochar shows limited retention of dissolved carbon in stormwater runoff ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Iqbal et al., 2015]). |
− | *'''Greenhouse gas emissions'''. Biochar effectively sequesters carbon and reduces loss of greenhouse gases when incorporated into soil or media, particularly soil with high organic matter content (Zhaoa et al., 2013; Mohanty et al., 2018; 37. Agyarko-Mintah et al., 2017). | + | *'''Greenhouse gas emissions'''. Biochar effectively sequesters carbon and reduces loss of greenhouse gases when incorporated into soil or media, particularly soil with high organic matter content ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Zhaoa et al., 2013; Mohanty et al., 2018; 37. Agyarko-Mintah et al., 2017]). |
===Effect of biochar on soil physical and hydraulic properties=== | ===Effect of biochar on soil physical and hydraulic properties=== | ||
− | Because of a large surface area and internal porosity, biochar can affect soil physical properties (Mohanty et al., 2018; Herrera Environmental Consultants, 2015; Iqbal et al., 2015; Imhoff, 2019; Jien and Wang, 2013). These effects are most pronounced in soils with low organic matter concentration. | + | Because of a large surface area and internal porosity, biochar can affect soil physical properties ([https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Mohanty et al., 2018; Herrera Environmental Consultants, 2015; Iqbal et al., 2015; Imhoff, 2019; Jien and Wang, 2013]). These effects are most pronounced in soils with low organic matter concentration. |
*'''Porosity and surface area'''. Biochar significantly increases the porosity of most soils. | *'''Porosity and surface area'''. Biochar significantly increases the porosity of most soils. | ||
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</div> | </div> | ||
− | DeLuca et al. (2015) provide an extensive discussion of biochar effects on nutrient cycling, fertility, and microbial function in soil. Their paper is based on an extensive review of the literature at the time of their publication. The following discussion is primarily based on information contained in this document. A list of suggested articles is provided at the end of this section. | + | [https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References DeLuca et al.] (2015) provide an extensive discussion of biochar effects on nutrient cycling, fertility, and microbial function in soil. Their paper is based on an extensive review of the literature at the time of their publication. The following discussion is primarily based on information contained in this document. A list of suggested articles is provided at the end of this section. |
Biochars derived from nutrient rich sources such as manure and sludge may directly provide nutrients. Most biochars, however, have limited direct contribution to the nutrient pool with the exception of potassium and ammonium. Biochar may accelerate nutrient cycling over long time scales by serving as a short-term source of highly available nutrients, which become | Biochars derived from nutrient rich sources such as manure and sludge may directly provide nutrients. Most biochars, however, have limited direct contribution to the nutrient pool with the exception of potassium and ammonium. Biochar may accelerate nutrient cycling over long time scales by serving as a short-term source of highly available nutrients, which become | ||
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'''Recommended reading''' | '''Recommended reading''' | ||
− | *Anderson, C. R., Condron, L. M., Clough, T. J., Fiers, M., Stewart, A., Hill, R. A. and Sherlock, R. R. | + | *Anderson, C. R., Condron, L. M., Clough, T. J., Fiers, M., Stewart, A., Hill, R. A. and Sherlock, R. R. 2011. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237079582_Biochar_induced_soil_microbial_community_change_Implications_for_biogeochemical_cycling_of_carbon_nitrogen_and_phosphorus Biochar induced soil microbial community change: Implications for biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus]. Pedobiologia, vol 54, pp309–320. |
− | *Borchard, N., Wolf, A., Laabs, V., Aeckersberg, R., Scherer, H. W., Moeller, A. and Amelung, W. | + | *Borchard, N., Wolf, A., Laabs, V., Aeckersberg, R., Scherer, H. W., Moeller, A. and Amelung, W. 2012. ''Physical activation of biochar and its meaning for soil fertility and nutrient leaching – a greenhouse experiment''. Soil Use and Management. 28:177–184. |
− | *Chan, K. Y. and Xu, Z. | + | *Chan, K. Y. and Xu, Z. 2009. ''Biochar: nutrient properties and their enhancement''. in J. Lehmann and S. Joseph (eds) Biochar for Environmental Management, Earthscan. London, pp 67–84. |
− | *Clough, T. J. and Condron, L. M. | + | *Clough, T. J. and Condron, L. M. 2010. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46217413_Biochar_and_the_Nitrogen_Cycle_Introduction Biochar and the nitrogen cycle: introduction]. Journal of Environmental Quality. 39:1218–1223. |
− | *Crutchfield, E. F., Merhaut, D. J., Mcgiffen, M. E. and Allen, E. B. | + | *Crutchfield, E. F., Merhaut, D. J., Mcgiffen, M. E. and Allen, E. B. 2010. [https://meridian.allenpress.com/jeh/article/36/4/126/431043/Effects-of-Biochar-on-Nutrient-Leaching-and Effects of biochar on nutrient leaching and plant growth]. Hortscience, vol 45, S163–S163. |
− | *Jeffery, S., Verheijen, F. G. A., Van Der Velde, M. and Bastos, A. C. | + | *Jeffery, S., Verheijen, F. G. A., Van Der Velde, M. and Bastos, A. C. 2011. ''A quantitative review of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using meta-analysis''. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment. 144:175–187. |
− | *Jones, D. L., Rousk, J., Edwards-Jones, G., DeLuca, T. H. and Murphy, D. V. | + | *Jones, D. L., Rousk, J., Edwards-Jones, G., DeLuca, T. H. and Murphy, D. V. 2012. ''Biochar-mediated changes in soil quality and plant growth in a three year field trial''. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 45:113–124. |
− | *Joseph, S. D., Downie, A., Munroe, P., Crosky, A. and Lehmann, J. | + | *Joseph, S. D., Downie, A., Munroe, P., Crosky, A. and Lehmann, J. 2007. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228483265_Biochar_for_Carbon_Sequestration_Reduction_of_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_and_Enhancement_of_Soil_Fertility_A_Review_of_the_Materials_Science Biochar for carbon sequesteration, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and enhancement of soil fertility; a review of the materials science]. Proceedings from Australian Combustion Symposium. University of Sydney, Australia. pp1–4. |
− | *Laird, D., | + | *Laird, D., Pierce Flemming, Baiqun Wang, Robert Horton, Douglas Karlen. 2010. [https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1434&context=agron_pubs Biochar impact on nutrient leaching from a Midwestern agricultural soil. Agronomy Publications]. Iowa State University. 9 p. |
− | *Lehmann, J., Rillig, M. C., Thies, J., Masiello, C. A., Hockaday, W. C. and Crowley, D. | + | *Lehmann, J., Rillig, M. C., Thies, J., Masiello, C. A., Hockaday, W. C. and Crowley, D. 2011. ''Biochar effects of soil biota – A review''. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 43:1812–1836. |
− | *Nelson, N. O., Agudelo, S. C., Yuan, W. and Gan, J. | + | *Nelson, N. O., Agudelo, S. C., Yuan, W. and Gan, J. 2011. ''Nitrogen and phosphorus availability in biochar-amended soils''. Soil Science. 176:218–226. |
− | *Pietikäinen, J., Kiikkila, O. and Fritze, H. | + | *Pietikäinen, J., Kiikkila, O. and Fritze, H. 2000. ''Charcoal as a habitat for microbes and its effect on the microbial community of the underlying humus''. Oikos. 89:231–242. |
− | *Quilliam, R. S., Marsden, K. A., Gertler, C., Rousk, J., DeLuca, T. H. and Jones, D. L. | + | *Quilliam, R. S., Marsden, K. A., Gertler, C., Rousk, J., DeLuca, T. H. and Jones, D. L. 2012. ''Nutrient dynamics, microbial growth and weed emergence in biochar amended soil are influenced by time since application and reapplication rate''. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment. 158:192–199. |
− | *Schultz, H. and Glaser, B. | + | *Schultz, H. and Glaser, B. 2012. Effects of biochar compared to organic and inorganic fertilizers on soil quality and plant growth in a greenhouse experiment. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. 175:410–422. |
− | *Yoo, G. and Kang, H. | + | *Yoo, G. and Kang, H. 2010. ''Effects of biochar addition on greenhouse gas emissions and microbial responses in a short-term laboratory experiment''. Journal of Environmental Quality. 41:1193–1202. |
==Standards, classification, testing, and distributors== | ==Standards, classification, testing, and distributors== | ||
− | Because of the large number of potential feedstocks, production conditions (primarily temperature), and applications for biochar, biochar classification is an active area of research. The information in this section largely comes from the [https://biochar-international.org/ International Biochar Initiative], but some | + | Because of the large number of potential feedstocks, production conditions (primarily temperature), and applications for biochar, biochar classification is an active area of research. The information in this section largely comes from the [https://biochar-international.org/ International Biochar Initiative], but some additional references include the following. |
− | *Arbestain et al. (2015): A biochar classification system and associated test methods | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Arbestain et al.] (2015): A biochar classification system and associated test methods |
− | *Klassen (2017): Biochar characterization and a method for estimating biochar quality from proximate analysis results | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Klassen] (2017): Biochar characterization and a method for estimating biochar quality from proximate analysis results |
− | *Leng et al. (2019): Biochar stability assessment methods: A review | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Leng et al.] (2019): Biochar stability assessment methods: A review |
*[https://biochar-us.org/go-deeper United States Biochar Initiative] | *[https://biochar-us.org/go-deeper United States Biochar Initiative] | ||
− | *Budai et al. (2013): Biochar Carbon Stability Test Method: An Assessment of methods to determine biochar carbon stability | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Budai et al.] (2013): Biochar Carbon Stability Test Method: An Assessment of methods to determine biochar carbon stability |
===Biochar standards=== | ===Biochar standards=== | ||
− | The Internation Biochar Initiative (IBI) developed Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil, also referred to The Biochar Standards. These standards provide guidelines and is not a formal set of industry specifications. The goal of The Biochar Standards is to "universally and consistently define what biochar is, and to confirm that a product intended for sale or use as biochar possesses the necessary characteristics for safe use. The IBI Biochar Standards also provide common reporting requirements for biochar that will aid researchers in their ongoing efforts to link specific functions of biochar to its beneficial soil and crop impacts." The IBI also provides a certification program. Information on the standards and certification are found on [https://biochar-international.org/characterizationstandard/ International Biochar Institute's website] or at the [https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final.pdf IBI's Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil]. | + | The Internation Biochar Initiative (IBI) developed ''Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil'', also referred to ''The Biochar Standards''. These standards provide guidelines and is not a formal set of industry specifications. The goal of ''The Biochar Standards'' is to "universally and consistently define what biochar is, and to confirm that a product intended for sale or use as biochar possesses the necessary characteristics for safe use. The IBI Biochar Standards also provide common reporting requirements for biochar that will aid researchers in their ongoing efforts to link specific functions of biochar to its beneficial soil and crop impacts." The IBI also provides a certification program. Information on the standards and certification are found on [https://biochar-international.org/characterizationstandard/ International Biochar Institute's website] or at the [https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final.pdf IBI's Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil]. |
The IBI also provides [https://biochar-international.org/biochar-classification-tool/ a biochar classification tool]. Currently, four biochar properties are classified: | The IBI also provides [https://biochar-international.org/biochar-classification-tool/ a biochar classification tool]. Currently, four biochar properties are classified: | ||
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{{alert|The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency does not endorse specific distributors of biochar or biochar products|alert-warning}} | {{alert|The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency does not endorse specific distributors of biochar or biochar products|alert-warning}} | ||
− | A list of biochar distributors is provided on the [https://biochar-us.org/manufacturers | + | A list of biochar distributors is provided on the [https://biochar-us.org/suppliers-and-manufacturers United States Biochar Initiative website (USBI)]. Note the USBI neither provides endorsements nor accepts liability for any particular product or technology listed. |
===Test methods=== | ===Test methods=== | ||
− | There is no universally accepted standard for biochar testing. The | + | There is no universally accepted standard for biochar testing. The International Biochar Initiative (IBI) developed [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Standardized-Product-Definition-and-Product-Testing-Ibi/d7f179afe9080d86b27be014109d4ebbd4b46a1b Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil]. The goals of this document are to provide "stakeholders and 5 commercial entities with standards to identify certain qualities and characteristics of biochar materials according to relevant, reliable, and measurable characteristics." The document provides information and test parameters and test nethods for three categories. |
*Test Category A – Basic Utility Properties (required) | *Test Category A – Basic Utility Properties (required) | ||
*Test Category B – Toxicant Assessment (required) | *Test Category B – Toxicant Assessment (required) | ||
*Test Category C – Advanced Analysis and Soil Enhancement Properties | *Test Category C – Advanced Analysis and Soil Enhancement Properties | ||
− | The IBI document also provides information on sampling procedures, laboratory standards, timing and frequency of testing, feedstcok and production parameters, frequency of testing, reporting, and additional information for specific types of biochar. The document also | + | The IBI document also provides information on sampling procedures, laboratory standards, timing and frequency of testing, feedstcok and production parameters, frequency of testing, reporting, and additional information for specific types of biochar. The document also provides a discussion of H:C ratios, which are used to indicate the stability of a particular biochar. |
==Effects of aging== | ==Effects of aging== | ||
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Below is a summary of some research findings. | Below is a summary of some research findings. | ||
− | *Mia et al. (2019) observed an increase in carboxylic and phenolic groups, a reduction of oxonium groups and the transformation of pyridine to pyridone with oxidation. This led to increased adsorption of ammonium and reduced adsorption of phosphate. Addition of biochar derived organic matter improved phosphate retention. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Mia et al.] (2017; 2019) observed an increase in carboxylic and phenolic groups, a reduction of oxonium groups and the transformation of pyridine to pyridone with oxidation. This led to increased adsorption of ammonium and reduced adsorption of phosphate. Addition of biochar derived organic matter improved phosphate retention. |
− | *Paetsch et al. (2018) studied effects of fresh and aged biochar on water availability and microbial parameters of a grassland soil. They observed improved water retention and microbial function with aged biochar. This was attributed to increased soil mineralization in soils with aged biochar. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Paetsch et al.] (2018) studied effects of fresh and aged biochar on water availability and microbial parameters of a grassland soil. They observed improved water retention and microbial function with aged biochar. This was attributed to increased soil mineralization in soils with aged biochar. |
− | *Paetsch et al. (2018) observed increased C:N ratios as biochar aged. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Paetsch et al.] (2018) observed increased C:N ratios as biochar aged. |
− | *Dong et al. (2017) observed increased specific surface area, increased carbon content, smaller average pore size, but no change in chemical structure of aged biochar versus fresh biochar. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Dong et al.] (2017) observed increased specific surface area, increased carbon content, smaller average pore size, but no change in chemical structure of aged biochar versus fresh biochar. |
− | *Quan et al. (2020) and Spokas (2013) observed biologically-mediated changes in aged biochar. Mineralization resulted in decreased carbon content in aged biochar. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Quan et al]. (2020) and Spokas (2013) observed biologically-mediated changes in aged biochar. Mineralization resulted in decreased carbon content in aged biochar. |
− | *Hale et al. (2012) determined that aged biochar retained its ability to adsorb PAHs. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Hale et al.] (2012) determined that aged biochar retained its ability to adsorb PAHs. |
− | *Cao et al. found that aged biochar had decreased carbon and nitrogen contents; reduced pH values, reduced porosity and specific surface area, and increased oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface. In general, the surface characteristics of the aged biochar varied with soil type. | + | *[https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Biochar_and_applications_of_biochar_in_stormwater_management#References Cao et al.] (2017) found that aged biochar had decreased carbon and nitrogen contents; reduced pH values, reduced porosity and specific surface area, and increased oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface. In general, the surface characteristics of the aged biochar varied with soil type. |
==Storage, handling, and field application== | ==Storage, handling, and field application== | ||
− | The following guidelines for field application of biochar are presented by Major (2010). | + | The following guidelines for field application of biochar are presented by [https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IBI_Biochar_Application.pdf Major] (2010). |
*Biochar dust particles can form explosive mixtures with air in confined spaces, and there is a danger of spontaneous heating and ignition when biochar is tightly packed. This occurs because fresh biochar quickly sorbs oxygen and moisture, and these sorption processes are exothermic, thus potentially leading to high temperature and ignition of the material. | *Biochar dust particles can form explosive mixtures with air in confined spaces, and there is a danger of spontaneous heating and ignition when biochar is tightly packed. This occurs because fresh biochar quickly sorbs oxygen and moisture, and these sorption processes are exothermic, thus potentially leading to high temperature and ignition of the material. | ||
*Volatile compounds present in certain biochar materials may also represent a fire hazard, but the amount of such compounds found in biochar can be managed by managing the pyrolysis temperature and heating rate. Certain chemicals can be added to biochar to decrease its flammability (e.g. boric acid, ferrous sulfate). The best way to prevent fire is to store and transport biochar in an atmosphere which excludes oxygen. Formulated biochar products such as mixtures with composts, manures, or the production of biochar-mineral complexes will potentially yield products which are much less flammable. | *Volatile compounds present in certain biochar materials may also represent a fire hazard, but the amount of such compounds found in biochar can be managed by managing the pyrolysis temperature and heating rate. Certain chemicals can be added to biochar to decrease its flammability (e.g. boric acid, ferrous sulfate). The best way to prevent fire is to store and transport biochar in an atmosphere which excludes oxygen. Formulated biochar products such as mixtures with composts, manures, or the production of biochar-mineral complexes will potentially yield products which are much less flammable. | ||
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==Sustainability== | ==Sustainability== | ||
− | Because biochar is produced from biomass, including wastes, it is sustainable from an availability or supply standpoint. Sustainable biochar production, however, is less certain based on current economic constraints. Biochar has several potential markets and exploiting these markets is necessary for biochar production to be sustainable. Examples of specific markets include stormwater media, soil health and fertility, and carbon sequestration [ | + | Because biochar is produced from biomass, including wastes, it is sustainable from an availability or supply standpoint. Sustainable biochar production, however, is less certain based on current economic constraints. Biochar has several potential markets and exploiting these markets is necessary for biochar production to be sustainable. Examples of specific markets include stormwater media, soil health and fertility, and carbon sequestration [http://www.biogreen-energy.com/biochar-production/ Biogreen] (accessed December 10, 2019). Sustainable biochar production must also meet certain environmental and economic criteria, includign the following. |
*Biochar systems should be, at a minimum, carbon and energy neutral. | *Biochar systems should be, at a minimum, carbon and energy neutral. | ||
*Biochar systems should prioritize the use of biomass residuals for biochar production. | *Biochar systems should prioritize the use of biomass residuals for biochar production. | ||
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==References== | ==References== | ||
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− | + | *Anderson, C. R., Condron, L. M., Clough, T. J., Fiers, M., Stewart, A., Hill, R. A. and Sherlock, R. R. 2011. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237079582_Biochar_induced_soil_microbial_community_change_Implications_for_biogeochemical_cycling_of_carbon_nitrogen_and_phosphorus Biochar induced soil microbial community change: Implications for biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus]. Pedobiologia, vol 54, pp309–320. | |
− | + | *Arbestain, M.C., J.E. Amonette, B. Singh, and T. Wang. 2015. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280053127_A_biochar_classification_system_and_associated_test_methods A biochar classification system and associated test methods]. In book: Biochar for Environmental Management (pp.165-194). Chapter 8. Publisher: Routledge. Editors: Johannes Lehmann, Stephen Joseph. | |
− | + | *Borchard, N., Wolf, A., Laabs, V., Aeckersberg, R., Scherer, H. W., Moeller, A. and Amelung, W. 2012. ''Physical activation of biochar and its meaning for soil fertility and nutrient leaching – a greenhouse experiment''. Soil Use and Management. 28:177–184. | |
− | *Agyarko-Mintah E, Cowie A, Singh BP, Joseph S, Van Zwieten L, Cowie A, Harden S, Smillie R.. 2017. Biochar increases nitrogen retention and lowers greenhouse gas emissions when added to composting poultry litter. Waste Manag. 61:138-149. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.027. Epub 2016 Dec 8. | + | *Brewer, C.E. 2012. [https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3291&context=etd Biochar characterization and engineering]. PhD thesis. Iowa State University. |
− | *Budai; A. R. Zimmerman; A.L. Cowie; J.B.W. Webber; B.P. Singh; B. Glaser; C. A. Masiello; D. Andersson; F. Shields; J. Lehmann; M. Camps Arbestain; M. Williams; S. Sohi; S. Joseph. 2013. Biochar Carbon Stability Test Method: An Assessment of methods to determine biochar carbon stability. Accessed December 12, 2019. | + | *Budai; A. R. Zimmerman; A.L. Cowie; J.B.W. Webber; B.P. Singh; B. Glaser; C. A. Masiello; D. Andersson; F. Shields; J. Lehmann; M. Camps Arbestain; M. Williams; S. Sohi; S. Joseph. 2013. [https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/IBI_Report_Biochar_Stability_Test_Method_Final.pdf Biochar Carbon Stability Test Method: An Assessment of methods to determine biochar carbon stability]. Accessed December 12, 2019. |
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− | *Conz, R., T. Abbruzzini, C.A. de Andrade, D.M.B.P. Milori. 2017. Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature and Feedstock Type on Agricultural Properties and Stability of Biochars. Agricultural Sciences 8:9:914-933. | + | *Chan, K. Y. and Xu, Z. 2009. ''Biochar: nutrient properties and their enhancement''. in J. Lehmann and S. Joseph (eds) Biochar for Environmental Management, Earthscan. London, pp 67–84. |
− | *DeLuca, T.H., M.D. MacKenzie, D.L. Jones. 2015. Biochar effects on soil nutrient transformations. | + | *Clough, T. J. and Condron, L. M. 2010. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46217413_Biochar_and_the_Nitrogen_Cycle_Introduction Biochar and the nitrogen cycle: introduction]. Journal of Environmental Quality. 39:1218–1223. |
− | *Ding, Y., Yu-Xue Liu, Wei-Xiang Wu, De-Zhi Shi, Min Yang, and Zhe-Ke Zhong. 2010. Evaluation of Biochar Effects on Nitrogen Retention and Leaching in Multi-Layered Soil Columns. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. Volume 213, Issue 1–4, pp 47–55. | + | *Conz, R., T. Abbruzzini, C.A. de Andrade, D.M.B.P. Milori. 2017. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319468119_Effect_of_Pyrolysis_Temperature_and_Feedstock_Type_on_Agricultural_Properties_and_Stability_of_Biochars Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature and Feedstock Type on Agricultural Properties and Stability of Biochars]. Agricultural Sciences 8:9:914-933. |
− | *Domingues, R.R., Paulo F. Trugilho, Carlos A. Silva, Isabel Cristina N. A. de Melo, Leoà nidas C. A. Melo, Zuy M. Magriotis, Miguel A. SaÂnchez-Monedero. 2017. Properties of biochar derived from wood and high-nutrient biomasses with the aim of agronomic and environmental benefits. PLOS | + | *Crutchfield, E. F., Merhaut, D. J., Mcgiffen, M. E. and Allen, E. B. 2010. [https://meridian.allenpress.com/jeh/article/36/4/126/431043/Effects-of-Biochar-on-Nutrient-Leaching-and Effects of biochar on nutrient leaching and plant growth]. Hortscience, vol 45, S163–S163. |
− | *Flesch, F., Pia Berger, Daniel Robles-Vargas , Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano, and Roberto Rico-Martínez. 2019. Characterization and Determination of the Toxicological Risk of Biochar Using Invertebrate Toxicity Tests in the State of Aguascalientes,México. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1706; doi:10.3390/app9081706. | + | *DeLuca, T.H., M.D. MacKenzie, D.L. Jones. 2015. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/302558326_Biochar_effects_on_soil_nutrient_transformations Biochar effects on soil nutrient transformations]. |
− | *Gai X, Wang H, Liu J, Zhai L, Liu S, et al. | + | *Ding, Y., Yu-Xue Liu, Wei-Xiang Wu, De-Zhi Shi, Min Yang, and Zhe-Ke Zhong. 2010. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225407749_Evaluation_of_Biochar_Effects_on_Nitrogen_Retention_and_Leaching_in_Multi-Layered_Soil_Columns Evaluation of Biochar Effects on Nitrogen Retention and Leaching in Multi-Layered Soil Columns]. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. Volume 213, Issue 1–4, pp 47–55. |
− | *Hale, S.E. Kelly Hanley, Johannes Lehmann, Andrew R. Zimmerman, and Gerard Cornelissen. 2012. Effects of Chemical, Biological, and Physical Aging As Well As Soil Addition on the Sorption of Pyrene to Activated Carbon and Biochar. Environ Sci Tech. | + | *Domingues, R.R., Paulo F. Trugilho, Carlos A. Silva, Isabel Cristina N. A. de Melo, Leoà nidas C. A. Melo, Zuy M. Magriotis, Miguel A. SaÂnchez-Monedero. 2017. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/efa3/11cb4ec367d4992fdc5a9be550bf67b20328.pdf?_ga=2.106287296.211059343.1634858948-2126831147.1634323415 Properties of biochar derived from wood and high-nutrient biomasses with the aim of agronomic and environmental benefits]. PLOS ONE12(5):e0176884. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. |
− | *Han, Y., Byoungkoo Choi, and Xiangwei Chen. 2018. Adsorption and Desorption of Phosphorus in Biochar-Amended Black Soil as Affected by Freeze-Thaw Cycles in Northeast China. | + | *Dong, X., G. Li, Q. Lin. and X. Zhao. 2017. ''Quantity and quality changes of biochar aged for 5 years in soil under field conditions''. Catena. 159:136-143. |
− | *Hardy, B., Steven Sleutel, Joseph E. Dufey, and Jean-Thomas Cornelis. 2019. The Long-Term Effect of Biochar on Soil Microbial Abundance, Activity and Community Structure Is Overwritten by Land Management. Frontiers Environ. Sci. 110:7:1-14. DOI: 10.3389/fenvs.2019.00110. | + | *Flesch, F., Pia Berger, Daniel Robles-Vargas , Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano, and Roberto Rico-Martínez. 2019. [https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/8/1706/htm Characterization and Determination of the Toxicological Risk of Biochar Using Invertebrate Toxicity Tests in the State of Aguascalientes, México]. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1706; doi:10.3390/app9081706. |
+ | *Gai X, Wang H, Liu J, Zhai L, Liu S, et al. 2014. [https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0113888 Effects of Feedstock and Pyrolysis Temperature on Biochar Adsorption of Ammonium and Nitrate]. PLoS ONE 9(12). 19 pages. doi:10. 1371/journal.pone.0113888. | ||
+ | *Hale, S.E. Kelly Hanley, Johannes Lehmann, Andrew R. Zimmerman, and Gerard Cornelissen. 2012. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51793613_Effects_of_Chemical_Biological_and_Physical_Aging_As_Well_As_Soil_Addition_on_the_Sorption_of_Pyrene_to_Activated_Carbon_and_Biochar Effects of Chemical, Biological, and Physical Aging As Well As Soil Addition on the Sorption of Pyrene to Activated Carbon and Biochar]. Environ Sci Tech. 45(24):10445-53. DOI:10.1021/es202970x. | ||
+ | *Han, Y., Byoungkoo Choi, and Xiangwei Chen. 2018. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325164478_Adsorption_and_Desorption_of_Phosphorus_in_Biochar-Amended_Black_Soil_as_Affected_by_Freeze-Thaw_Cycles_in_Northeast_China Adsorption and Desorption of Phosphorus in Biochar-Amended Black Soil as Affected by Freeze-Thaw Cycles in Northeast China]. Sustainability 10(5):1574. DOI:10.3390/su10051574 | ||
+ | *Hardy, B., Steven Sleutel, Joseph E. Dufey, and Jean-Thomas Cornelis. 2019. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334435720_The_Long-Term_Effect_of_Biochar_on_Soil_Microbial_Abundance_Activity_and_Community_Structure_Is_Overwritten_by_Land_Management The Long-Term Effect of Biochar on Soil Microbial Abundance, Activity and Community Structure Is Overwritten by Land Management]. Frontiers Environ. Sci. 110:7:1-14. DOI:10.3389/fenvs.2019.00110. | ||
*Hoffman-Krull, K.H. 2019. [https://rodaleinstitute.org/blog/whats-biochar-how-to-stabilize-carbon-in-your-soil/ WHAT’S BIOCHAR? HOW TO STABILIZE CARBON IN YOUR SOIL]. Rodale Institute. | *Hoffman-Krull, K.H. 2019. [https://rodaleinstitute.org/blog/whats-biochar-how-to-stabilize-carbon-in-your-soil/ WHAT’S BIOCHAR? HOW TO STABILIZE CARBON IN YOUR SOIL]. Rodale Institute. | ||
− | * | + | *International Biochar Initiative. [https://biochar-international.org/biochar-feedstocks/ Biochar Feedstocks]. Accessed December 12, 2019. |
− | *Iqbal, H., Manuel Garcia-Perez, Markus Flury. 2015. Effect of biochar on leaching of organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus from compost in bioretention systems Science of the Total Environment 521–522 (2015) 37–45 | + | *Iqbal, H., Manuel Garcia-Perez, Markus Flury. 2015. ''Effect of biochar on leaching of organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus from compost in bioretention systems''. Science of the Total Environment 521–522 (2015) 37–45 |
− | *Jahromi, N.B., and A. Fulcher. What is Biochar and How Different Biochars Can Improve Your Crops. University of Tennessee Extension. Publication W829. Accessed 12/12/2019. | + | *Jahromi, N.B., and A. Fulcher. 2019. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336124619_What_Is_Biochar_and_How_Different_Biochars_Can_Improve_Your_Crops What is Biochar and How Different Biochars Can Improve Your Crops]. University of Tennessee Extension. Publication W829. Accessed 12/12/2019. |
− | *Jien, Shih-Hao, and Chien-Sheng Wang. 2013. Effects of biochar on soil properties and erosion potential in a highly weathered soil. Catena. 110:225-233 | + | *Jeffery, S., Verheijen, F. G. A., Van Der Velde, M. and Bastos, A. C. 2011. ''A quantitative review of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using meta-analysis''. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment. 144:175–187. |
− | *Jindo, K., H. Mizumoto3, Y. Sawada, M. A. Sanchez-Monedero1, and T. Sonoki. 2014. Physical and chemical characterization of biochars derived from different agricultural residues. Biogeosciences, 11, 6613–6621. | + | *Jien, Shih-Hao, and Chien-Sheng Wang. 2013. [https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0341816213001604?token=208104BEE17913BC8F80F6248737F8196777BE3A62639432B1801DA46AA37B967A160408F1864779D6AC76E2175D8447&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20211022023842 Effects of biochar on soil properties and erosion potential in a highly weathered soil]. Catena. 110:225-233 |
− | *Kasak, K., Jaak Truu, Ivika Ostonen, Jürgen Sarjas, Kristjan Oopkaup, Päärn Paiste, Margit Kõiv-Vainik, Ülo Mander, Marika Truu. 2018. Biochar enhances plant growth and nutrient removal in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands Science of the Total Environment 639:67–74 | + | *Jindo, K., H. Mizumoto3, Y. Sawada, M. A. Sanchez-Monedero1, and T. Sonoki. 2014. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307656278_Physical_and_chemical_characterizations_of_biochars_derived_from_different_agricultural_residues Physical and chemical characterization of biochars derived from different agricultural residues]. Biogeosciences, 11, 6613–6621. |
− | *Klasson, T.K. 2017. Biochar characterization and a method for estimating biochar quality from proximate analysis results. Biomass and Bioenergy. 96:50-58. | + | *Jones, D. L., Rousk, J., Edwards-Jones, G., DeLuca, T. H. and Murphy, D. V. 2012. ''Biochar-mediated changes in soil quality and plant growth in a three year field trial''. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 45:113–124. |
− | *Laird, D., Pierce Flemming, Baiqun Wang, Robert Horton, Douglas Karlen. 2010. Biochar impact on nutrient leaching from a Midwestern agricultural soil. Agronomy Publications. Iowa State University. 9 p. | + | *Joseph, S.,P. Taylor, F. Rezende, K. Draper, A. Cowie. [https://biochar.international/guides/properties-fresh-aged-biochar/ The Properties of Fresh and Aged Biochar]. |
− | *Lyu H, He Y, Tang J, Hecker M, Liu Q, Jones PD, Codling G, Giesy JP. 2016. Effect of pyrolysis temperature on potential toxicity of biochar if applied to the environment. Environ Pollut. 218:1-7. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.014. | + | *Joseph, S. D., Downie, A., Munroe, P., Crosky, A. and Lehmann, J. 2007. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228483265_Biochar_for_Carbon_Sequestration_Reduction_of_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_and_Enhancement_of_Soil_Fertility_A_Review_of_the_Materials_Science Biochar for carbon sequesteration, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and enhancement of soil fertility; a review of the materials science]. Proceedings from Australian Combustion Symposium. University of Sydney, Australia. pp1–4. |
+ | *Kasak, K., Jaak Truu, Ivika Ostonen, Jürgen Sarjas, Kristjan Oopkaup, Päärn Paiste, Margit Kõiv-Vainik, Ülo Mander, Marika Truu. 2018. ''Biochar enhances plant growth and nutrient removal in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands''. Science of the Total Environment 639:67–74 | ||
+ | *Klasson, T.K. 2017. ''Biochar characterization and a method for estimating biochar quality from proximate analysis results''. Biomass and Bioenergy. 96:50-58. | ||
+ | *Laird, D., Pierce Flemming, Baiqun Wang, Robert Horton, Douglas Karlen. 2010. [https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1434&context=agron_pubs Biochar impact on nutrient leaching from a Midwestern agricultural soil. Agronomy Publications]. Iowa State University. 9 p. | ||
+ | *Lehmann, J., Rillig, M. C., Thies, J., Masiello, C. A., Hockaday, W. C. and Crowley, D. 2011. ''Biochar effects of soil biota – A review''. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 43:1812–1836. | ||
+ | *Leng, L, H. Huang, and H. Li. 2019. ''Biochar stability assessment methods: A review''. Science of the Total Environment 647: 210-222. DOI:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.402 | ||
+ | *Lyu H, He Y, Tang J, Hecker M, Liu Q, Jones PD, Codling G, Giesy JP. 2016. ''Effect of pyrolysis temperature on potential toxicity of biochar if applied to the environment''. Environ Pollut. 218:1-7. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.014. | ||
*Major, J. 2010. [https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IBI_Biochar_Application.pdf Guidelines on Practical Aspects of Biochar Application to Field Soil in Various Soil Management Systems]. | *Major, J. 2010. [https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IBI_Biochar_Application.pdf Guidelines on Practical Aspects of Biochar Application to Field Soil in Various Soil Management Systems]. | ||
− | *Mensah, A.K., and Kwame Agyei Frimpong. 2018. Biochar and/or Compost Applications Improve Soil Properties, Growth, and Yield of Maize Grown in Acidic Rainforest and Coastal Savannah Soils in Ghana. International Journal of Agronomy. Volume 2018, 8 pages. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6837404 | + | *Mensah, A.K., and Kwame Agyei Frimpong. 2018. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b86b/6c94fb6f0e86fe9f9a50fc56ad242d13fae0.pdf?_ga=2.80206420.211059343.1634858948-2126831147.1634323415 Biochar and/or Compost Applications Improve Soil Properties, Growth, and Yield of Maize Grown in Acidic Rainforest and Coastal Savannah Soils in Ghana]. International Journal of Agronomy. Volume 2018, 8 pages. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6837404 |
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− | *Nabiul Afrooz, A.R.M., Ana K. Pitol, Dianna Kitt, and Alexandria B. Boehm. 2018. Role of microbial cell properties on bacterial pathogen and coliphage removal in biochar-modified stormwater biofilters. Environ Sci: Water Res and Tech. 12: | + | *Mohanty, S.K., Renan Valenca, Alexander W. Berger, Iris K.M. Yu, Xinni Xiong, Trenton M. Saunders, Daniel C.W. Tsang. 2018. ''Plenty of room for carbon on the ground: Potential applications of biochar for stormwater treatment''. Science of the Total Environment, 625: 1644-1658. |
− | *Nguyen, N.T. 2015. Adsorption Of Phosphorus From Wastewater Onto Biochar: Batch And Fixed-bed Column Studies | + | *Mumme J, Getz J, Prasad M, Lüder U, Kern J, Mašek O, Buss W. 2018. ''Toxicity screening of biochar-mineral composites using germination tests''. Chemosphere. 207:91-100. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.05.042. |
− | *Oleszczuk, P., Izabela Jo´sko, Marcin Ku´smierz. 2013. Biochar properties regarding to contaminants content and ecotoxicological assessment. Journal of Hazardous Materials 260 (2013) 375– 382. | + | *Nabiul Afrooz, A.R.M., Ana K. Pitol, Dianna Kitt, and Alexandria B. Boehm. 2018. ''Role of microbial cell properties on bacterial pathogen and coliphage removal in biochar-modified stormwater biofilters''. Environ Sci: Water Res and Tech. 12: |
− | *Quan G, Fan Q, Zimmerman AR, Sun J, Cui L, Wang H, Gao B, Yan J. 2020. Effects of laboratory biotic aging on the characteristics of biochar and its water-soluble organic products. J Hazard Mater. 2020 Jan 15;382:121071. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121071 | + | *Nelson, N. O., Agudelo, S. C., Yuan, W. and Gan, J. 2011. ''Nitrogen and phosphorus availability in biochar-amended soils''. Soil Science. 176:218–226. |
− | *Rawat, J., J. Saxena, and P. Sanwal. 2018. Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties. In: Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.82151 | + | *Nguyen, N.T. 2015. ''Adsorption Of Phosphorus From Wastewater Onto Biochar: Batch And Fixed-bed Column Studies''. |
− | *Reddy, K.R., Tao Xie, and Sara Dastgheibi. 2014. Evaluation of Biochar as a Potential Filter Media for the Removal of Mixed Contaminants from Urban Storm Water Runoff. Journal Environ Eng. 140:12. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000872 | + | *Oleszczuk, P., Izabela Jo´sko, Marcin Ku´smierz. 2013. [https://www.academia.edu/22488554/Biochar_properties_regarding_to_contaminants_content_and_ecotoxicological_assessment Biochar properties regarding to contaminants content and ecotoxicological assessment]. Journal of Hazardous Materials 260 (2013) 375– 382. |
− | *Shamim Mia, Feike A. Dijkstra, and Balwant Singh. 2017. | + | *Paetsch, L., C.W. Mueller, I. Kögel-Knabner, M. von Lutzow, C. Girardin, and C. Rumpel 2018.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324872987_Effect_of_in-situ_aged_and_fresh_biochar_on_soil_hydraulic_conditions_and_microbial_C_use_under_drought_conditions Effect of in-situ aged and fresh biochar on soil hydraulic conditions and microbial C use under drought conditions]. Scientific Reports 8(1):6852. DOI:10.1038/s41598-018-25039-x |
− | *Soinne, H., Jarkko Hovi, PriitTammeorg, EilaTurtola. 2014. Effect of biochar on phosphorus sorption and clay soil aggregate stability. Geoderma. Volumes 219–220, May 2014, Pages 162-167. | + | *Quan G, Fan Q, Zimmerman AR, Sun J, Cui L, Wang H, Gao B, Yan J. 2020. ''Effects of laboratory biotic aging on the characteristics of biochar and its water-soluble organic products''. J Hazard Mater. 2020 Jan 15;382:121071. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121071 |
+ | *Quilliam, R. S., Marsden, K. A., Gertler, C., Rousk, J., DeLuca, T. H. and Jones, D. L. 2012. ''Nutrient dynamics, microbial growth and weed emergence in biochar amended soil are influenced by time since application and reapplication rate''. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment. 158:192–199. | ||
+ | *Rawat, J., J. Saxena, and P. Sanwal. 2018. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330942887_Biochar_A_Sustainable_Approach_for_Improving_Plant_Growth_and_Soil_Properties Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties]. In: Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.82151 | ||
+ | *Reddy, K.R., Tao Xie, and Sara Dastgheibi. 2014. ''Evaluation of Biochar as a Potential Filter Media for the Removal of Mixed Contaminants from Urban Storm Water Runoff''. Journal Environ Eng. 140:12. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000872 | ||
+ | *Schultz, H. and Glaser, B. 2012. Effects of biochar compared to organic and inorganic fertilizers on soil quality and plant growth in a greenhouse experiment. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. 175:410–422. | ||
+ | *Shamim Mia, Feike A. Dijkstra, and Balwant Singh. 2017. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317697694_Aging_Induced_Changes_in_Biochar's_Functionality_and_Adsorption_Behavior_for_Phosphate_and_Ammonium Aging Induced Changes in Biochar’s Functionality and Adsorption Behavior for Phosphate and Ammonium]. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51:8359−8367. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00647 | ||
+ | *Soinne, H., Jarkko Hovi, PriitTammeorg, EilaTurtola. 2014. ''Effect of biochar on phosphorus sorption and clay soil aggregate stability''. Geoderma. Volumes 219–220, May 2014, Pages 162-167. | ||
*Spears, S. 2018. [https://regenerationinternational.org/2018/05/16/what-is-biochar/ What is Biochar?] Regeneration International. | *Spears, S. 2018. [https://regenerationinternational.org/2018/05/16/what-is-biochar/ What is Biochar?] Regeneration International. | ||
− | *Spokas, K.A. 2013. Impact of biochar field aging on laboratory greenhouse gas production potentials. GCB Bioenergy (2013) 5, 165–176, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12005 | + | *Spokas, K.A. 2013. [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/41695/Reprints/gcbb12005.pdf Impact of biochar field aging on laboratory greenhouse gas production potentials]. GCB Bioenergy (2013) 5, 165–176, doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12005 |
− | *Ulrich, B.A., Megan Loehnert and Christopher P. Higgins. 2017. Improved contaminant removal in vegetated stormwater biofilters amended with biochar Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology. | + | *Ulrich, B.A., Megan Loehnert and Christopher P. Higgins. 2017. ''Improved contaminant removal in vegetated stormwater biofilters amended with biochar'' Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology. 3:726-734. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EW00070G |
− | *Wang, K., Na Peng, Guining Lu, Zhi Dang, 2018. Effects of Pyrolysis Temperature and Holding Time on Physicochemical Properties of Swine-Manure-Derived Biochar. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 1-12 DOI: 10.1007/s12649-018-0435-2 | + | *Verheijen, F.G.A., A.C. Bastos, HP Schmidt, M. Brandao. 2015. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275770511_Biochar_Sustainability_and_Certification Biochar Sustainability and Certification]. In book: Biochar for Environmental management, Science, Technology and Implementation. 2nd Edition. Chapter 28. Publisher: Routledge. Editors: Johannes Lehmann & Stephen Joseph. |
− | *Yang, F., Yue Zhou, Weiming Liu, Wenzhu Tang, Jun Meng, Wenfu Chen, and Xianzhen Li. 2019. Article Strain-Specific Effects of Biochar and Its Water-Soluble Compounds on Bacterial Growth. Appl. Sci. 9(16), 3209; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163209. | + | *Wang, K., Na Peng, Guining Lu, Zhi Dang, 2018. ''Effects of Pyrolysis Temperature and Holding Time on Physicochemical Properties of Swine-Manure-Derived Biochar''. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 1-12 DOI: 10.1007/s12649-018-0435-2 |
− | *Yao, Y., Bin Gao, Mandu Inyang, Andrew R. Zimmerman, Xinde Cao, Pratap Pullammanappallil, Liuyan Yang. 2011 Biochar derived from anaerobically digested sugar beet tailings:Characterization and phosphate removal potential. Bioresource Technology. 102:6273-6278 | + | *Yang, F., Yue Zhou, Weiming Liu, Wenzhu Tang, Jun Meng, Wenfu Chen, and Xianzhen Li. 2019. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335044552_Strain-Specific_Effects_of_Biochar_and_Its_Water-Soluble_Compounds_on_Bacterial_Growth Article Strain-Specific Effects of Biochar and Its Water-Soluble Compounds on Bacterial Growth]. Appl. Sci. 9(16), 3209; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163209. |
− | *Yaoa, Y., Bin Gaoa, Mandu Inyanga, Andrew R. Zimmermanb, Xinde Caoc, Pratap Pullammanappallila, Liuyan Yangd. 2011. Removal of phosphate from aqueous solution by biochar derived from anaerobically digested sugar beet tailings. Journal of Hazardous Materials 190:501–507 | + | *Yao, Y., Bin Gao, Mandu Inyang, Andrew R. Zimmerman, Xinde Cao, Pratap Pullammanappallil, Liuyan Yang. 2011 ''Biochar derived from anaerobically digested sugar beet tailings:Characterization and phosphate removal potential''. Bioresource Technology. 102:6273-6278 |
− | *Yuan-Ying Wang, Xiang-Rong Jing, Ling-Li Li, Wu-Jun Liu, Zhong-Hua Tong, Hong Jiang. 2017. Biotoxicity Evaluations of Three Typical Biochars Using a Simulated System of Fast Pyrolytic Biochar Extracts on Organisms of Three Kingdoms. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2017, 5, 1, 481-488. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b01859 | + | *Yaoa, Y., Bin Gaoa, Mandu Inyanga, Andrew R. Zimmermanb, Xinde Caoc, Pratap Pullammanappallila, Liuyan Yangd. 2011. [https://people.clas.ufl.edu/azimmer/files/Publication-pdf/Yao11_Removal-of-phosphate-from-aqueous-solution-by-biochar-derived-from.pdf Removal of phosphate from aqueous solution by biochar derived from anaerobically digested sugar beet tailings]. Journal of Hazardous Materials 190:501–507 |
− | *Zhang, M., Muhammad Riaz, Lin Zhang, Zeinab El-desouki, and Cuncang Jiang. Biochar Induces Changes to Basic Soil Properties and Bacterial Communities of Different Soils to Varying Degrees at 25 mm Rainfall: More Effective on Acidic Soils. 2019. Frontiers Microbio. 12:10:1321. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01321 | + | *Yoo, G. and Kang, H. 2010. Effects of biochar addition on greenhouse gas emissions and microbial responses in a short-term laboratory experiment. Journal of Environmental Quality. 41:1193–1202. |
− | *Zhao, J.J. Xin-Jie Shen, Xavier Domene, Josep-Maria Alcañiz, Xing Liao and Cristina Palet. 2019. Comparison of biochars derived from different types of feedstock and their potential for heavy metal removal in multiple-metal solutions. Scientific Reports 9. Article 9869. | + | *Yuan-Ying Wang, Xiang-Rong Jing, Ling-Li Li, Wu-Jun Liu, Zhong-Hua Tong, Hong Jiang. 2017. ''Biotoxicity Evaluations of Three Typical Biochars Using a Simulated System of Fast Pyrolytic Biochar Extracts on Organisms of Three Kingdoms''. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2017, 5, 1, 481-488. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b01859 |
− | *Zhao, Shi-Xiang, Na Ta and Xu-Dong Wang 2017. Effect of Temperature on the Structural and Physicochemical Properties of Biochar with Apple Tree Branches as Feedstock Material Energies | + | *Zhang, M., Muhammad Riaz, Lin Zhang, Zeinab El-desouki, and Cuncang Jiang. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333737870_Biochar_Induces_Changes_to_Basic_Soil_Properties_and_Bacterial_Communities_of_Different_Soils_to_Varying_Degrees_at_25_mm_Rainfall_More_Effective_on_Acidic_SoilsImage_1TIFImage_2TIFImage_3TIFImage_4TI Biochar Induces Changes to Basic Soil Properties and Bacterial Communities of Different Soils to Varying Degrees at 25 mm Rainfall: More Effective on Acidic Soils]. 2019. Frontiers Microbio. 12:10:1321. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01321 |
− | *Zhaoa, L., Xinde Caoa, Ondˇrej Maˇsekb, Andrew Zimmerman. 2013. Heterogeneity of biochar properties as a function of feedstock sources and production temperatures. Journal of Hazardous Materials 256– 257:1– 9 | + | *Zhao, J.J. Xin-Jie Shen, Xavier Domene, Josep-Maria Alcañiz, Xing Liao and Cristina Palet. 2019. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334303738_Comparison_of_biochars_derived_from_different_types_of_feedstock_and_their_potential_for_heavy_metal_removal_in_multiple-metal_solutions Comparison of biochars derived from different types of feedstock and their potential for heavy metal removal in multiple-metal solutions]. Scientific Reports 9. Article 9869. |
− | *Zheng, H., Zhenyu Wang, Xia Deng, Stephen Herbert, Baoshan Xing. 2013. Impacts of adding biochar on nitrogen retention and bioavailability in agricultural soil. Geoderma, Volume 206:32-39 | + | *Zhao, Shi-Xiang, Na Ta and Xu-Dong Wang 2017. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326981698_Effect_of_Temperature_on_the_Structural_and_Physicochemical_Properties_of_Biochar_with_Apple_Tree_Branches_as_Feedstock_Material Effect of Temperature on the Structural and Physicochemical Properties of Biochar with Apple Tree Branches as Feedstock Material Energies]. Energies 10(9):1293. 10:1293; doi:10.3390/en10091293 |
+ | *Zhaoa, L., Xinde Caoa, Ondˇrej Maˇsekb, Andrew Zimmerman. 2013. [https://people.clas.ufl.edu/azimmer/files/Publication-pdf/Zhao-Zimmerman-13_Heterogeneity-of-biochar-properties-as-a-function-of-feedstock-sources-and-prod-temp.pdf Heterogeneity of biochar properties as a function of feedstock sources and production temperatures]. Journal of Hazardous Materials 256– 257:1– 9. | ||
+ | *Zheng, H., Zhenyu Wang, Xia Deng, Stephen Herbert, Baoshan Xing. 2013. [https://www.academia.edu/13432167/Impacts_of_adding_biochar_on_nitrogen_retention_and_bioavailability_in_agricultural_soil Impacts of adding biochar on nitrogen retention and bioavailability in agricultural soil]. Geoderma, Volume 206:32-39 | ||
+ | |||
+ | <noinclude> | ||
+ | [[Category:Level 2 - Technical and specific topic information/soils and media]] | ||
+ | </noinclude> |
Biochar is a charcoal-like substance that’s made by burning organic material such as crop residues; yard, food and forestry wastes; and animal manures. Beneficial properties of biochar include the following.
Regarding water quality, additional research is needed, but generally:
Biochar is also found to be beneficial for composting. |
This page provides information on biochar. While providing extensive information on biochar, there is a section focused specifically on stormwater applications for biochar.
Link to a table comparing properties of different organic materials
Biochar is a charcoal-like substance that’s made by burning organic material from biomass. The two most common proceesses for producing biochar are pyrolysis and gasification. During pyrolysis, the organic material is heated to 250-800oC in a limited oxygen environment. Gasification involves temperatures greater than 700oC in the presence of oxygen.
Biomass waste materials appropriate for biochar production include crop residues (both field residues and processing residues such as nut shells, fruit pits, bagasse, etc); yard, food and forestry wastes; and animal manures. Clean feedstocks with 10 to 20 percent moisture and high lignin content are recommended. Examples are field residues and woody biomass. Using contaminated feedstocks, including feedstocks from railway embankments or contaminated land, can introduce toxins into the soil, drastically increase soil pH and/or inhibit plants from absorbing minerals. The most common contaminants are heavy metals—including cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, mercury, nickel and arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
Biochar is black, highly porous, lightweight, fine-grained and has a large surface area. Approximately 70 percent of its composition is carbon. The remaining percentage consists of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen among other elements. Biochar’s chemical composition varies depending on the feedstocks used to make it and methods used to heat it.
Biochar benefits for soil may include but are not limited to
Biochar is also found to be beneficial for composting, since it reduces greenhouse gas emissions and prevents the loss of nutrients in the compost material. It also promotes microbial activity, which in turn accelerates the composting process. Plus, it helps reduce the compost’s ammonia losses, bulk density and odor (Spears, 2018; Hoffman-Krull, 2019).
Biochar has several potential applications for stormwater management.
Possible implications for stormwater management include the following.
Potential biochar stormwater applications (adapted from Table 6 in Mohanty et al. (2018)).
Link to this table
Practice | Potential benefits of biochar |
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Downspout filter boxes |
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Tree boxes |
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Green roofs |
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Biofiltration |
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Constructed ponds and wetlands |
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Sand filters |
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Level spreader/filter strips |
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Swales |
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Infiltration trench/basin |
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Recommended reading
Although the basic structure of all biochars is similar, the physical-chemical properties of biochar varies with the source material and with the temperature used in production.
Since a wide variety of organic material can be used to produce biochar, it is not feasible to discuss each material separately. We provide the following general conclusions. Literature used to develop these conclusions is provided at the end of this section.
The International Biochar Initiative (see Appendix 6) provides a classification system for biochar feedstocks, shown below.
Literature
Changes in the properties of biochar result from loss of volatile organic matter as temperature increases. This leads to a gradual loss in the number of functional groups on the biochar and increased aromaticity as temperature increases.
In general, the following conclusions are applicable for biochar used in stormwater applications.
The following information comes from a literature review of the effects of production temperature on biochar
This section includes a discussion of chemical and physical properties of biochar, and potential contaminants in biochar.
The properties of biochar vary depending on the feedstock and production temperature, as discussed above. Consequently there is considerable variability in the chemical and physical properties of different biochars. The table below summarizes data from our literature review. Some conclusions from the literature are summarized below.
Chemical and physical properties of biochar.
Link to this table
Property | Range found in literature1 | Median value from literature |
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Total phosphorus (%) | 0.0061 - 1.086 | 0.0618 |
Total nitrogen (%) | 1.2 - 2.4 | 0.88 |
Total potassium (%) | 0.0079 - 1.367 | 0.181 |
Total carbon (%) | 24.2 - 90.9 | 66 |
Total hydrogen (%) | 0.67 - 4.3 | 2.8 |
Total oxygen (%) | 2.69 - 28.7 | 16.3 |
pH | 6.43 - 10.4 | 9.66 |
Cation exchange capacity (cmol/kg) | 0.1 - 562 | 43.1 |
Surface area (m2/g | 2.78 - 203 | 30.6 |
Electrical conductivity (μs/cm) | 100 - 2221 | 231.5 |
Pore volume (cm3/g) | 0.006 - 0.51 | 0.036 |
Total calcium (%) | 0.0954 - 3.182 | 0.590 |
Total magnesium (%) | 0.0297 - 0.2801 | 0.0587 |
Total copper (%) | 0.0001 - 0.0078 | 0.00025 |
Total zinc (%) | 0.0002 - 0.0152 | 0.00135 |
Total aluminum (%) | 0.001 - 0.1929 | 0.0290 |
Total iron (%) | 0.0009 - 0.2209 | 0.0333 |
Total manganese (%) | 0.0001 - 0.1025 | 0.00145 |
Total sulfur (%) | 0.01 - 0.44 | 0.05 |
Primary references for this data:
|
Potential contaminants associated with biochar are a function of the source material and production temperature. Of greatest concern are metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Oleszcuk et al. (2013) examined metal and PAH concentrations in four biochars (elephant grass, coconut shell, wicker, and wheat straw). Metal concentrations (mg/kg) in the biochars are summarized below. Tier 1 Soil Reference Values (SRVs) are included in parentheses (Tier 1 values correspond with no restrictions on use of the soil).
Concentrations in biochar are well below Tier 1 SRVs.
In the study by Oleszcuk et al. (2013), total PAHs ranged from 1,124.2 ng/g to 28,339.1 ng/g (ppb). The dominant group of PAHs were 3-ring compounds which comprised 64.6% to 82.6% of total PAHs content. The primary compounds included, in order of abundance, phenanthrene, fluorene, anthracene, and pyrene. No 6-ring PAHs were observed. Concentrations of PAHs and other organic contaminants, such as dioxins, decreases with increasing pyrolysis temperature (Lyu et al., 2016).
In general, biochars mixed with soil do not inhibit germination or root growth. Biochar may enhance soil fertility by providing nutrients or more commonly by slowing the release of nutrients from materials such as compost. Toxic effects have been observed for some invertebrates, indicating that in sensitive environments, biochar testing is advisable (Oleszcuk et al., 2013; Mumme et al., 2018; Flesch et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017) .
In this section we provide information on effects of biochar on pollutant attenuation and the physical properties of soil and bioretention media.
Biochar is not likely to provide significant phosphorus retention in bioretention practices unless impregnated with cations (e.g. magnesium) during production at relatively low temperatures (e.g. less than 600oC.) |
Biochar may have several properties for managing stormwater, such as increased water and pollutant retention, improving soil physical properties, and attenuating bacteria and pathogens. Biochar has been examined as a potential amendment to engineered media in bioretention or other stormwater control practices. With respect to phosphorus, information from the literature is mixed. Below are summaries from several studies.
Because of a large surface area and internal porosity, biochar can affect soil physical properties (Mohanty et al., 2018; Herrera Environmental Consultants, 2015; Iqbal et al., 2015; Imhoff, 2019; Jien and Wang, 2013). These effects are most pronounced in soils with low organic matter concentration.
Effects of biochar on soil fertility, plant growth, and microbial function are affected by several factors, including feedstock, production method, soil, application rate, and biochar age. Biochar has few negative effects on fertility, plant growth and microbial function and in many cases has the potential to greatly improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions. |
DeLuca et al. (2015) provide an extensive discussion of biochar effects on nutrient cycling, fertility, and microbial function in soil. Their paper is based on an extensive review of the literature at the time of their publication. The following discussion is primarily based on information contained in this document. A list of suggested articles is provided at the end of this section.
Biochars derived from nutrient rich sources such as manure and sludge may directly provide nutrients. Most biochars, however, have limited direct contribution to the nutrient pool with the exception of potassium and ammonium. Biochar may accelerate nutrient cycling over long time scales by serving as a short-term source of highly available nutrients, which become incorporated into living biomass and labile soil organic pools. Thus biochar, while typically providing modest inputs of nutrients, enhances the bioavailability of nutrients in soil.
Because biochar typically enhances soil physical properties, including increasing water holding capacity, improving gas exchange, increasing surface area and availability of microsites for microbes, and in some cases increasing cation exchange capacity, biochar enhances microbial activity in soil. In addition, carbon in biochar provides a sorptive surface that can retain nutrients and thus minimize leaching and volatilization of nutrients.
Several studies suggest biochar amendments in soil result in increased microbial biomass, while other studies show no effect. Mixed results have also been observed for the effects of biochar on microbial community composition.
Specific conclusions from the DeLuca et al. (2015) paper include the following.
Recommended reading
Because of the large number of potential feedstocks, production conditions (primarily temperature), and applications for biochar, biochar classification is an active area of research. The information in this section largely comes from the International Biochar Initiative, but some additional references include the following.
The Internation Biochar Initiative (IBI) developed Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil, also referred to The Biochar Standards. These standards provide guidelines and is not a formal set of industry specifications. The goal of The Biochar Standards is to "universally and consistently define what biochar is, and to confirm that a product intended for sale or use as biochar possesses the necessary characteristics for safe use. The IBI Biochar Standards also provide common reporting requirements for biochar that will aid researchers in their ongoing efforts to link specific functions of biochar to its beneficial soil and crop impacts." The IBI also provides a certification program. Information on the standards and certification are found on International Biochar Institute's website or at the IBI's Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil.
The IBI also provides a biochar classification tool. Currently, four biochar properties are classified:
A list of biochar distributors is provided on the United States Biochar Initiative website (USBI). Note the USBI neither provides endorsements nor accepts liability for any particular product or technology listed.
There is no universally accepted standard for biochar testing. The International Biochar Initiative (IBI) developed Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil. The goals of this document are to provide "stakeholders and 5 commercial entities with standards to identify certain qualities and characteristics of biochar materials according to relevant, reliable, and measurable characteristics." The document provides information and test parameters and test nethods for three categories.
The IBI document also provides information on sampling procedures, laboratory standards, timing and frequency of testing, feedstcok and production parameters, frequency of testing, reporting, and additional information for specific types of biochar. The document also provides a discussion of H:C ratios, which are used to indicate the stability of a particular biochar.
Biochar undergoes transformations in soil after application, primarily through oxidation processes, typically mediated by microbes. Several researchers have studied effects of aging on biochar properties. Although researchers observe similar changes in the chemical and physical structure of biochar with aging, observed effects vary. It is therefore difficult to draw general conclusions about likely changes in the effects of biochar aging on fate of pollutants and soil hydraulic properties.
Below is a summary of some research findings.
The following guidelines for field application of biochar are presented by Major (2010).
Because biochar is produced from biomass, including wastes, it is sustainable from an availability or supply standpoint. Sustainable biochar production, however, is less certain based on current economic constraints. Biochar has several potential markets and exploiting these markets is necessary for biochar production to be sustainable. Examples of specific markets include stormwater media, soil health and fertility, and carbon sequestration Biogreen (accessed December 10, 2019). Sustainable biochar production must also meet certain environmental and economic criteria, includign the following.
For more information, see the International Biochar Initiative discussion on sustainable biochar production. For a discussion of biochar sustainability, see sustainability and Certification (Vereijen et al., 2015).
This page was last edited on 29 August 2023, at 15:45.